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14 pages, 8536 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of B₄C Powder on Properties of the WAAM 2319 Al Alloy

by Xueping Song, Jinke Niu, Jiankang Huang, Ding Fan, Shurong Yu, Yuanjun Ma and Xiaoquan Yu

Materials 2023, 16(1), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010436 - 3 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2292

Abstract

With ER2319 and B₄C powder as feedstocks and additives, respectively, a wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) system based on double-pulse melting electrode inert gas shielded welding (DP-MIG) was used to fabricate single-pass multilayer 2319 aluminum alloy. The results showed that, compared [...] Read more.

With ER2319 and B₄C powder as feedstocks and additives, respectively, a wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) system based on double-pulse melting electrode inert gas shielded welding (DP-MIG) was used to fabricate single-pass multilayer 2319 aluminum alloy. The results showed that, compared with additive manufacturing component without B₄C, the addition of which can effectively reduce the grain size (from 43 μm to 25 μm) of the tissue in the deposited layer area and improve its mechanical properties (from 231 MPa to 286 MPa). Meanwhile, the mechanical properties are better in the transverse than in the longitudinal direction. Moreover, the strengthening mechanism of B₄C on the mechanical properties of aluminum alloy additive manufacturing mainly includes dispersion strengthening from fine and uniform B₄C granular reinforcing phases and fine grain strengthening from the grain refinement of B₄C. These findings shed light on the B₄C induced grain refinement mechanism and improvement of WAAM 2319 Al alloy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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15 pages, 2712 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Data Collection of Surface Quality Analysis of CuCrZr Specimens Manufactured with SLM Technology: Analysis of the Effects of Process Parameters

by Ilaria Caravella, Daniele Cortis, Luca Di Angelo and Donato Orlandi

Materials 2023, 16(1), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010098 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1553

Abstract

Selective laser melting (SLM) is the most widely used laser powder-bed fusion (L-PBF) technology for the additive manufacturing (AM) of parts from metallic powders. The surface quality of the SLM parts is highly dependent on many factors and process parameters. These factors include [...] Read more.

Selective laser melting (SLM) is the most widely used laser powder-bed fusion (L-PBF) technology for the additive manufacturing (AM) of parts from metallic powders. The surface quality of the SLM parts is highly dependent on many factors and process parameters. These factors include the powder grain size, the layer thickness, and the building angle. This paper conducted an experimental analysis of the effects of SLM process parameters on the surface quality of CuCrZr cubic specimens. Thanks to its excellent thermal and mechanical properties, CrCrZr has become one of the most widely used materials in SLM technology. The specimens have been produced with different combinations of layer thickness, laser patterns, building angles, and scanning speed, keeping the energy density constant. The results show how different combinations of parameters affect the surface quality macroscopically (i.e., layer thickness, building angle, and scanning speed); in contrast, other parameters (i.e., laser pattern) do not seem to have any contributions. By varying these parameters within typical ranges of the AM machine used, variations in surface quality can be achieved from 10.4 µm up to 40.8 µm. These results represent an important basis for developing research activities that will further focus on implementing a mathematical/experimental model to help designers optimize the surface quality during the AM pre-processing phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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20 pages, 566 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Numerical Investigation of Dimensionless Numbers Characterizing Meltpool Morphology of the Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process

by Kunal Bhagat and Shiva Rudraraju

Materials 2023, 16(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010094 - 22 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2249

Abstract

Microstructure evolution in metal additive manufacturing (AM) is a complex multi-physics and multi-scale problem. Understanding the impact of AM process conditions on the microstructure evolution and the resulting mechanical properties of the printed component remains an active area of research. At the meltpool [...] Read more.

Microstructure evolution in metal additive manufacturing (AM) is a complex multi-physics and multi-scale problem. Understanding the impact of AM process conditions on the microstructure evolution and the resulting mechanical properties of the printed component remains an active area of research. At the meltpool scale, the thermo-fluidic governing equations have been extensively modeled in the literature to understand the meltpool conditions and the thermal gradients in its vicinity. In many phenomena governed by partial differential equations, dimensional analysis and identification of important dimensionless numbers can provide significant insights into the process dynamics. In this context, we present a novel strategy using dimensional analysis and the linear least-squares regression method to numerically investigate the thermo-fluidic governing equations of the Laser Powder Bed Fusion AM process. First, the governing equations are solved using the Finite Element Method, and the model predictions are validated by comparing with experimentally estimated cooling rates, and with numerical results from the literature. Then, through dimensional analysis, an important dimensionless quantity interpreted as a measure of heat absorbed by the powdered material and the meltpool, is identified. This dimensionless measure of absorbed heat, along with classical dimensionless quantities such as Péclet, Marangoni, and Stefan numbers, are employed to investigate advective transport in the meltpool for different alloys. Further, the framework is used to study variations in the thermal gradients and the solidification cooling rate. Important correlations linking meltpool morphology and microstructure-evolution-related variables with classical dimensionless numbers are the key contribution of this work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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16 pages, 6030 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cyclic Deformation Behavior of Additive-Manufactured IN738LC Superalloys from Virgin and Reused Powders

by Jialiang Chen, Jinghao Xu, Mikael Segersäll, Eduard Hryha, Ru Lin Peng and Johan Moverare

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8925; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248925 - 14 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1794

Abstract

In laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF), most powders are not melted in the chamber and collected after the printing process. Powder reuse is appreciable without sacrificing the mechanical properties of target components. To understand the influences of powder reuse on mechanical performance, a [...] Read more.

In laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF), most powders are not melted in the chamber and collected after the printing process. Powder reuse is appreciable without sacrificing the mechanical properties of target components. To understand the influences of powder reuse on mechanical performance, a nickel-based superalloy, IN738LC, was investigated. Powder morphology, microstructure and chemical compositions of virgin and reused powders were characterized. An increase in oxygen content, generally metallic oxides, was located on the surface of powders. Monotonic tensile and cyclic fatigue were tested. Negligible deterioration in strength and tensile ductility were found, while scattered fatigue performance with regard to fatigue life was shown. Deformation and fatigue crack propagation mechanisms were discussed for describing the powder degradation effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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14 pages, 7752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Changes in the Surface Layer of Stainless Steel Annealed at a Temperature of 550 °C

by Anna Sedláčková, Tatiana Ivanova, Miroslav Mashlan and Hana Doláková

Materials 2022, 15(24), 8871; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248871 - 12 Dec 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2169

Abstract

Stainless steels have the advantage of forming a protective surface layer to prevent corrosion. This layer results from phase and structural changes on the steel surface. Stainless steel samples (1.4404, 316L), whose alloying elements include Cr, Ni, Mo, and Mn, were subjected to [...] Read more.

Stainless steels have the advantage of forming a protective surface layer to prevent corrosion. This layer results from phase and structural changes on the steel surface. Stainless steel samples (1.4404, 316L), whose alloying elements include Cr, Ni, Mo, and Mn, were subjected to the study of the surface layer. Prism-shaped samples (25 × 25 × 3) mm³ were made from CL20ES stainless steel powder, using selective laser melting. After sandblasting with corundum powder and annealing at 550 °C for different periods of time (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 h), samples were studied by conversion X-ray Mössbauer spectroscopy (CXMS), conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy (CEMS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The main topics of the research were surface morphology and elemental and phase composition. The annealing of stainless steel samples resulted in a new surface layer comprising leaf-shaped crystals made of chromium oxide. The crystals grew, and their number increased as annealing time was extended. The amount of chromium increased in the surface layer at the expense of iron and nickel, and the longer the annealing time was set, the more chromium was observed in the surface layer. Iron compounds (BCC iron, mixed Fe–Cr oxide) were found in the surface layer, in addition to chromium oxide. BCC iron appeared only after annealing for at least 4 h, which is the initial time of austenitic–ferritic transformation. Mixed Fe–Cr oxide was observed in all annealed samples. All phase changes were observed in the surface layer at approximately 0.6 µm depth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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19 pages, 4429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Power and Laser Speed on the Mechanical Properties of AlSi7Mg0.6 Manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion

by Sébastien Vaudreuil, Salah-Eddine Bencaid, Hamid Reza Vanaei and Anouar El Magri

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8640; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238640 - 4 Dec 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2006

Abstract

The AlSi7Mg0.6 alloy, with its good tolerance against strain, is used in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) to produce parts with complex geometries for aerospace engineering. Production of parts with good mechanical strength requires, however, the optimization of laser parameters. This study thus [...] Read more.

The AlSi7Mg0.6 alloy, with its good tolerance against strain, is used in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) to produce parts with complex geometries for aerospace engineering. Production of parts with good mechanical strength requires, however, the optimization of laser parameters. This study thus evaluated the influence of scanning speed, laser power, and strategy on several mechanical properties (tensile/resilience/hardness) to identify an optimal processing region. Results have shown the profound influence of laser power and scanning speed on mechanical properties, with a limited influence from the laser strategy. Tensile strength values ranging from 122 to 394 MPa were obtained, while Young’s Modulus varied from 17 to 29 GPa, and the elongation at break ranged from 2.1 to 9.8%. Surface plots of each property against laser power and speed revealed a region of higher mechanical properties. This region is found when using 50 µm thick layers for energy densities between 25 and 35 J/mm³. Operating at higher values of energy density yielded sub-optimal properties, while a lower energy density resulted in poor performances. Results have shown that any optimization strategy must not only account for the volumic energy density value, but also for laser power itself when thick layers are used for fabrication. This was shown through parts exhibiting reduced mechanical performances that were produced within the optimal energy density range, but at low laser power. By combining mid-speed and power within the optimal region, parts with good microstructure and limited defects such as balling, keyhole pores, and hot cracking will be produced. Heat-treating AlSi7Mg0.6 parts to T6 temper negatively affected mechanical performances. Adapted tempering conditions are thus required if improvements are sought through tempering. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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16 pages, 4659 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of the Microstructure of Ti6Al4V Alloy by Coaxial Double Laser Metal-Wire Deposition

by Junjie He, Ryosuke Yokota, Yuji Imamiya, Keiichi Noriyama and Hiroyuki Sasahara

Materials 2022, 15(22), 7985; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15227985 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1509

Abstract

Laser metal-wire deposition (LMwD) exhibits a larger molten pool and layer height during printing, compared to powder bed fusion additive manufacturing; in the present study, these features revealed a more inhomogeneous but easily observable microstructure. The coaxial double laser used herein makes the [...] Read more.

Laser metal-wire deposition (LMwD) exhibits a larger molten pool and layer height during printing, compared to powder bed fusion additive manufacturing; in the present study, these features revealed a more inhomogeneous but easily observable microstructure. The coaxial double laser used herein makes the energy distribution of the molten pool more complex than that afforded by a single laser source, and the microstructure of the LMwD parts was more heterogeneous as well. We observed the microstructure of Ti6Al4V by the double LMwD as-built samples by conducting a laboratory experiment and a simulation. The precipitated martensite (α’) phase was defined after eliminating the influence of the β element in an X-ray diffraction analysis, which has not been discussed previously in the literature. We also propose a theory regarding the formation of heat-affected zone (HAZ) bands in an environment that includes the α’ phase. Our experiments revealed only white HAZ bands, which can be attributed to the solute partitioning caused by sequential thermal cycling and the absence of the β element. The microhardness of the HAZ band areas was lower than that of both the upper and lower sides. The simulation results indicate that the maximum temperature of 2925 °C restrains the generating of HAZ bands in the final two deposited layers, due to its great difference from the β transus temperature. Moreover, the higher heat accumulation in the upper layers promoted the migration of β-grain boundaries, which may explain why the coarse columnar β grains tended to grow at the edge area in the layers deposited later. We also observed that with the use of high temperature, the nucleation of β grains is more easily promoted in the lower layers. We conclude that the concentration of residual stress in the fusion zone and the first layer is favorable to the nucleation of equiaxed grains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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16 pages, 3433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Layer Thickness and Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Alloy 625 Manufactured by Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion

by Julio Cesar Diaz, Kurtis Watanabe, Aldo Rubio, Alex De La Cruz, Dana Godinez, Shadman T. Nabil, Lawrence E. Murr, Ryan B. Wicker, Edel Arrieta and Francisco Medina

Materials 2022, 15(21), 7767; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217767 - 3 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1475

Abstract

This research program investigated the effects of layer thickness (50 µm and 100 µm) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of electron beam powder bed fusion (EBPBF) additive manufacturing of Inconel 625 alloy. The as-built 50 µm and 100 µm layer thickness components [...] Read more.

This research program investigated the effects of layer thickness (50 µm and 100 µm) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of electron beam powder bed fusion (EBPBF) additive manufacturing of Inconel 625 alloy. The as-built 50 µm and 100 µm layer thickness components were also heat treated at temperatures above 1100 °C which produced a recrystallized grain structure containing annealing twins in the 50 µm layer thickness components, and a duplex grain structure consisting of islands of very small equiaxed grains dispersed in a recrystallized, large-grain structure containing annealing twins. The heat-treated components of the microstructures and mechanical properties were compared with the as-built components in both the build direction (vertical) and perpendicular (horizontal) to the build direction. Vickers microindentation hardness (HV) values for the vertical and horizontal geometries averaged 227 and 220 for the as-built 50 µm and 100 µm layer components, respectively, and 185 and 282 for the corresponding heat-treated components. The yield stress values were 387 MPa and 365 MPa for the as-built horizontal and vertical 50 µm layer geometries, and 330 MPa and 340 MPa for the as-built 100 µm layer components. For the heat-treated 50 µm components, the yield stress values were 340 and 321 MPa for the horizontal and vertical geometries, and 581 and 489 MPa for the 100 µm layer components, respectively. The elongation for the 100 µm layer as-built horizontal components was 28% in contrast with 65% for the corresponding 100 µm heat-treated layer components, an increase of 132% for the duplex grain structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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18 pages, 4795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Processing of a Martensitic Tool Steel by Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing

by Ulf Ziesing, Jonathan Lentz, Arne Röttger, Werner Theisen and Sebastian Weber

Materials 2022, 15(21), 7408; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15217408 - 22 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2038

Abstract

This work investigates the processability of hot-work tool steels by wire-arc additive manufacturing (DED-Arc) from metal-cored wires. The investigations were carried out with the hot-work tool steel X36CrMoWVTi10-3-2. It is shown that a crack-free processing from metal-cored wire is possible, resulting from a [...] Read more.

This work investigates the processability of hot-work tool steels by wire-arc additive manufacturing (DED-Arc) from metal-cored wires. The investigations were carried out with the hot-work tool steel X36CrMoWVTi10-3-2. It is shown that a crack-free processing from metal-cored wire is possible, resulting from a low martensite start (M_s) temperature, high amounts of retained austenite (RA) in combination with increased interpass temperatures during deposition. Overall mechanical properties are similar over the built-up height of 110 mm. High alloying leads to pronounced segregation during processing by DED-Arc, achieving a shift of the secondary hardness maximum towards higher temperatures and higher hardness in as-built + tempered condition in contrast to hardened + tempered condition, which appears to be beneficial for applications of DED-Arc processed material at elevated temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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16 pages, 4061 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Heat Treatment on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of AZ61 Magnesium Alloy Prepared by Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

by Shuai Liu and Hanjie Guo

Materials 2022, 15(20), 7067; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207067 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1967

Abstract

From previous studies, it is known that the dissolution of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ at high temperature and the increase of densities at high pressure after hot isostatic pressing (HIP) are the two main reasons for significant improvement in the ductility of AZ61 [...] Read more.

From previous studies, it is known that the dissolution of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ at high temperature and the increase of densities at high pressure after hot isostatic pressing (HIP) are the two main reasons for significant improvement in the ductility of AZ61 magnesium alloy prepared by SLM. However, the mechanism of dissolution of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ in SLMed AZ61 magnesium alloy at high temperature is not clear. To illustrate the mechanism of the effect of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ dissolution on the ductility of SLMed AZ61 Mg alloy, the effect of solid solution heat treatment (T4) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of SLMed AZ61 was investigated and the kinetic model of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ dissolution of SLMed AZ61 magnesium alloy was established. According to the results, there is no significant change in the dissolution of the β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ with an increase of temperature and time when the T4 temperature is lower than 410 °C. At the optimum solution heat treatment temperature of 410 °C, the dissolution rate is accelerated and the β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ is completely dissolved after 2 h. In addition, the dissolution rate of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ decreases with the increase of dissolution time. The strength of SLMed AZ61 magnesium alloy decreases and the ductility increases as the T4 temperature increases. The strength of the specimens is reduced by grain coarsening (29.2 ± 3.7 μm), but the elongation is increased by 90% compared to SLMed AZ61, due to the effect of β-Mg₁₇Al₁₂ dissolution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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13 pages, 7372 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phase Transformation after Heat Treatment of Cr-Ni Stainless Steel Powder for 3D Printing

by Karla Čech Barabaszová, Aleš Slíva, Gabriela Kratošová, Sylva Holešová, Anastasia Volodarskaja, Tugrul Cetinkaya, Silvie Brožová, Libor Kozubek and Gražyna Simha Martynková

Materials 2022, 15(15), 5343; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15155343 - 3 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2201

Abstract

Today, Ni-Cr steel is used for advanced applications in the high-temperature and electrical industries, medical equipment, food industry, agriculture and is applied in food and beverage packaging and kitchenware, automotive or mesh. A study of input steel powder from various stages of the [...] Read more.

Today, Ni-Cr steel is used for advanced applications in the high-temperature and electrical industries, medical equipment, food industry, agriculture and is applied in food and beverage packaging and kitchenware, automotive or mesh. A study of input steel powder from various stages of the recycling process intended for 3D printing was conducted. In addition to the precise evaluation of the morphology, particle size and composition of the powders used for laser 3D printing, special testing and evaluation of the heat-treated powders were carried out. Heat treatment up to 950 °C in an air atmosphere revealed the properties of powders that can appear during laser sintering. The powders in the oxidizing atmosphere change the phase composition and the original FeNiCr stainless steel changes to a two-phase system of Fe₃Ni and Cr₂O₃, as evaluated by X-ray diffraction analysis. Observation of the morphology showed the separation of the oxidic phase in the sense of a brittle shell. The inner part of the powder particle is a porous compact core. The particle size is generally reduced due to the peeling of the oxide shell. This effect can be critical to 3D printing processing, causing defects on the printed parts, as well as reducing the usability of the precursor powder and can also change the properties of the printed part. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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18 pages, 6109 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Aging and Cooling Path on the Super β-Transus Heat-Treated Ti-6Al-4V Alloy Produced via Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

by Alessandro Carrozza, Giulio Marchese, Abdollah Saboori, Emilio Bassini, Alberta Aversa, Federica Bondioli, Daniele Ugues, Sara Biamino and Paolo Fino

Materials 2022, 15(12), 4067; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124067 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1833

Abstract

This work focuses on the effect of different heat treatments on the Ti-6Al-4V alloy processed by means of electron beam melting (EBM). Super β-transus annealing was conducted at 1050 °C for 1 h on Ti-6Al-4V samples, considering two different cooling paths (furnace cooling [...] Read more.

This work focuses on the effect of different heat treatments on the Ti-6Al-4V alloy processed by means of electron beam melting (EBM). Super β-transus annealing was conducted at 1050 °C for 1 h on Ti-6Al-4V samples, considering two different cooling paths (furnace cooling and water quenching). This heat treatment induces microstructural recrystallization, thus reducing the anisotropy generated by the EBM process (columnar prior-β grains). Subsequently, the annealed furnace-cooled and water-quenched samples were aged at 540 °C for 4 h. The results showed the influence of the aging treatment on the microstructure and the mechanical properties of the annealed EBM-produced Ti-6Al-4V. A comparison with the traditional processed heat-treated material was also conducted. In the furnace-cooled specimens consisting of lamellar α+β, the aging treatment improved ductility and strength by inducing microstructural thickening of the α laths and reducing the β fraction. The effect of the aging treatment was also more marked in the water-quenched samples, characterized by high tensile strengths but limited ductility due to the presence of martensite. In fact, the aging treatment was effective in the recovery of the ductility loss, maintaining high tensile strength properties due to the variation in the relative number of α/α’ interfaces resulting from α’ decomposition. This study, therefore, offers an in-depth investigation of the potential beneficial effects of the aging treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the EBM-processed super β-transus heat-treated Ti-6Al-4V alloy under different cooling conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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13 pages, 6398 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selective Laser Melting of CuSn10: Simulation of Mechanical Properties, Microstructure, and Residual Stresses

by Robert Kremer, Somayeh Khani, Tamara Appel, Heinz Palkowski and Farzad Foadian

Materials 2022, 15(11), 3902; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15113902 - 30 May 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2441

Abstract

In this study, the evolution of mechanical properties, microstructure, and residual stresses during selective laser melting of CuSn10 components was studied. To provide a proper material model for the simulations, various CuSn10 parts were manufactured using selective laser melting and examined. The manufactured [...] Read more.

In this study, the evolution of mechanical properties, microstructure, and residual stresses during selective laser melting of CuSn10 components was studied. To provide a proper material model for the simulations, various CuSn10 parts were manufactured using selective laser melting and examined. The manufactured parts were also used to validate the developed model. Subsequently, a sequentially coupled thermal–mechanical FEM model was developed using the Ansys software package. The developed model was able to deliver the mechanical properties, residual stresses, and microstructure of the additively manufactured components. Due to introducing some simplifications to the model, a calibration factor was applied to adjust the simulation results. However, the developed model was validated and showed a good agreement with the experimental results, such as measured residual stresses using the hole drilling method, as well as mechanical properties of manufactured parts. Moreover, the developed material model was used to simulate the microstructure of manufactured CuSn10. A fine-grain microstructure with an average diameter of 19 ± 11 μm and preferred orientation in the Z-direction, which was the assembly direction, was obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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12 pages, 4461 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Post-Fabricated Aging on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Underwater Friction Stir Additive Manufacturing of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloy

by Ying Li, Changshu He, Jingxun Wei, Zhiqiang Zhang, Ni Tian, Gaowu Qin and Xiang Zhao

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3368; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093368 - 7 May 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2291

Abstract

The fabricated Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy build has low mechanical properties due to the dissolution of strengthening precipitates back into the matrix during friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM). Post-fabricated aging was considered an effective approach to improve the mechanical performance of the build. In this [...] Read more.

The fabricated Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy build has low mechanical properties due to the dissolution of strengthening precipitates back into the matrix during friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM). Post-fabricated aging was considered an effective approach to improve the mechanical performance of the build. In this study, various post-fabricated aging treatments were applied in the underwater FSAM of Al–7.5 Zn–1.85 Mg–1.3 Cu–0.135 Zr alloy. The effect of the post-fabricated aging on the microstructure, microhardness, and local tensile properties of the build was investigated. The results indicated that over-aging occurred in the low hardness zone (LHZ) of the build after artificial aging at 120 °C for 24 h as the high density of grain boundaries, subgrain boundaries, dislocations, and Al₃Zr particles facilitated the precipitation. Low-temperature aging treatment can effectively avoid the over-aging problem. After aging at 100 °C for 48 h, the average microhardness value of the build reached 178 HV; the yield strength of the LHZ and high hardness zone (HHZ) was 453 MPa and 463 MPa, respectively; and the ultimate tensile strength of the LHZ and HHZ increased to 504 MPa and 523 MPa, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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15 pages, 5387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Annealing Treatment on Microstructure and Properties of Ni-Rich NiTi Alloy Coating Prepared by Laser Cladding

by Yuqiang Feng, Ziyi Gao and Zhengfei Hu

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3298; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093298 - 4 May 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2027

Abstract

NiTi alloys are widely known for their shape memory effect and super-elasticity. In this study, the laser cladding method was applied to prepare Ni-rich NiTi alloy coatings on 316L stainless steel substrate. The microstructure, phase composition, element distribution and phase transformation behavior of [...] Read more.

NiTi alloys are widely known for their shape memory effect and super-elasticity. In this study, the laser cladding method was applied to prepare Ni-rich NiTi alloy coatings on 316L stainless steel substrate. The microstructure, phase composition, element distribution and phase transformation behavior of the coatings were investigated in as-fabricated and annealing-treated states. The results indicated that the recrystallized microstructure obtained and the content of Ni₃Ti and Ti₂Ni phases increased significantly with a rising annealing temperature. Annealing treatment also induced a decrease in the phase-transition enthalpy and a rise in the transformation temperature, even though no obvious martensite transformation was observed. This was suppressed due to the Fe element diffused from the substrate and was probably retarded by the mounting metallic compounds formed during annealing as well. The mechanical properties have also improved obviously; coatings annealed under 850 °C exhibited the highest microhardness of 839 HV, and the wear resistance of the coatings after annealing was enhanced with an 11% average wear mass loss reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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13 pages, 5839 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Compound Structure–Composition Control on the Mechanical Properties of Selective Laser-Melted Titanium Alloys

by Guang Yang, Botao Cui, Congyu Wang, Yongdi Zhang, Chongchong Guo and Congwei Wang

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3125; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093125 - 26 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1676

Abstract

In the performance optimization of the additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V components, conventional control methods have difficulty taking into account the requirements of quality and mechanical properties of components, resulting in insufficient mechanical properties and a small control range. Therefore, combining the advantages of [...] Read more.

In the performance optimization of the additive manufacturing of Ti6Al4V components, conventional control methods have difficulty taking into account the requirements of quality and mechanical properties of components, resulting in insufficient mechanical properties and a small control range. Therefore, combining the advantages of porous structure and alloy composition control, this paper proposed a structure–composition composite control method for selective laser-fused titanium alloy components by coupling the effects of porous structure parameters and boron content on the properties of Ti6Al4V components. Based on the Gibson–Ashby formula, the compression test of porous Ti6Al4V alloy and the tensile test of boron-containing Ti6Al4V alloy were carried out by SLM forming technology. The parameters C and n related to the pore parameters of porous structure were solved by the experimental data, and the analytical relationship between the pore parameters and the mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy was established. The analytical relationship between boron content (t wt%) and mechanical properties of the alloy was established by tensile test. Finally, the Gibson–Ashby formula was used to combine the above analytical relationship, and a composite regulation model of compressive strength was obtained. The results show that the control range of the composite model ranges from 19.46–416.47 MPa, which was 45.53% higher than that obtained by controlling only pore parameters, and performance improved by 42.49%. The mechanical properties of the model are verified and the deviation between calculated values and experimental values was less than 1.3%. Taking aviation rocker arm as an example, the optimized design can improve the strength and reduce the mass of rocker arm by 51.94%. This method provides a theoretical basis for expanding the application of Ti6Al4V additive manufacturing components in aerospace and other fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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16 pages, 7455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chemical Composition, Microstructure, Tensile and Creep Behavior of Ti60 Alloy Fabricated via Electron Beam Directed Energy Deposition

by Guodong Zhang, Wei Liu, Peng Zhang, Huaping Xiong, Jianshi Gao, Huai Yu and Hong Yuan

Materials 2022, 15(9), 3109; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15093109 - 25 Apr 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2253

Abstract

Electron beam directed energy deposition (EB-DED) is a promising manufacturing process for the fabrication of large-scale, fully dense and near net shape metallic components. However, limited knowledge is available on the EB-DED process of titanium alloys. In this study, a near-α high-temperature titanium [...] Read more.

Electron beam directed energy deposition (EB-DED) is a promising manufacturing process for the fabrication of large-scale, fully dense and near net shape metallic components. However, limited knowledge is available on the EB-DED process of titanium alloys. In this study, a near-α high-temperature titanium alloy Ti60 (Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-4Zr-0.7Nb-1.5Ta-0.4Si) was fabricated via EB-DED. The chemical composition, microstructure, tensile property (at room temperature and 600 °C), and creep behavior of the fabricated alloy were investigated and compared with those of the conventional wrought lamellar and bimodal counterparts. Results indicated that the average evaporation loss of Al and Sn was 10.28% and 5.01%, respectively. The microstructure of the as-built alloy was characterized by coarse columnar grains, lamellar α, and the precipitated elliptical silicides at the α/β interfaces. In terms of tensile properties, the vertical specimens exhibited lower strength but higher ductility than the horizontal specimens at both room temperature and 600 °C. Furthermore, the tensile creep strain of the EB-DED Ti60 alloy measured at 600 °C and 150 MPa for 100 h under as-built and post-deposition STA conditions was less than 0.15%, which meets the standard requirements for the wrought Ti60 alloy. The creep resistance of the EB-DED Ti60 alloy was superior to that of its wrought bimodal counterpart. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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17 pages, 8337 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Laser Powers on Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Al_0.5FeCoCrNi High-Entropy Alloys Fabricated by Laser Melting Deposition

by Xuesong Zhang, Yinbao Tian, Sunusi Marwana Manladan, Yan Cui, Keping Geng, Yangchuan Cai and Jian Han

Materials 2022, 15(8), 2894; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082894 - 15 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1939

Abstract

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) show great promise for various applications in many fields. However, it still remains a challenge to obtain the ideal match of the tensile strength and the ductility. In this paper, Al_0.5FeCoCrNi walls were fabricated through laser melting deposition [...] Read more.

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) show great promise for various applications in many fields. However, it still remains a challenge to obtain the ideal match of the tensile strength and the ductility. In this paper, Al_0.5FeCoCrNi walls were fabricated through laser melting deposition (LMD) technology with laser power ranging from 1000 W to 1800 W. Along with the increase in laser power, the average size of the Al_0.5FeCoCrNi walls increased from 14.31 μm to 34.88 μm, and the B2 phase decreased from 16.5% to 2.1%. Notably, the ultimate tensile strength and the ductility of the 1000 W bottom wall were 737 MPa and 24.6%, respectively, while those of 1800 W top wall were 641 MPa and 27.6%, respectively, demonstrating that the tensile strength of the walls decreased and the ductility increased with the increase in laser power. Furthermore, quantitative calculation revealed that grain boundary strengthening and dislocation strengthening were the two major forms of strengthening compared to the others. This study concluded that the mechanical properties of HEAs could be regulated by laser power, enabling broader applications in industry with favorable tensile strength or ductility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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21 pages, 30809 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laser Deposited 18Ni300 Alloy Powder on 1045 Steel: Effect of Passes and Preheating on Microstructure

by Omid Emadinia, Jorge Gil, Rui Amaral, Cláudia Lopes, Rui Rocha and Ana Reis

Materials 2022, 15(3), 1209; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15031209 - 5 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2229

Abstract

The application of maraging steels such as 18Ni300 alloy is noteworthy for mould industries, applying repair purposes through direct energy deposition process. This objective requires microstructural characterizations and the evaluation of mechanical behaviour such as hardness. The state of substrate material, including the [...] Read more.

The application of maraging steels such as 18Ni300 alloy is noteworthy for mould industries, applying repair purposes through direct energy deposition process. This objective requires microstructural characterizations and the evaluation of mechanical behaviour such as hardness. The state of substrate material, including the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the interface between the HAZ and deposited layer, is essential, the formation of hard phases and abrupt transitions. Thus, the influence of the number of deposited layers or the pre-heating condition appears noteworthy. In the current study, microscopy observations did not reveal the presence of any crack in the cross-sections of deposited 18Ni300 alloy powder on AISI 1045 sheet steel; however, pores were observed in deposited layers. Besides, microscopic analyses revealed the achievement of a smooth HAZ in the deposited layers composed of three-layered depositions or that received preheating, confirmed by hardness measurements as well. Dilution effect ensured a metallurgical bonding between depositions and substrate, strongly affected by preheating. The HAZ microstructure, mainly martensitic transformation, distribution of chemical composition, epitaxial growth at the interface, and the size of crystals and grains were affected by preheating or the number of layers. Moreover, the heat propagation and/or dissipation across the deposited layers influenced the dendrite morphology and the texture of grains. The preheating condition provoked the formation of cellular/equiaxed dendrites that was highlighted in the three-layered deposition, increase in dendrite interspace growth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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13 pages, 3453 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Virtual Development of Process Parameters for Bulk Metallic Glass Formation in Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion

by Johan Lindwall, Andreas Lundbäck, Jithin James Marattukalam and Anders Ericsson

Materials 2022, 15(2), 450; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020450 - 7 Jan 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1951

Abstract

The development of process parameters and scanning strategies for bulk metallic glass formation during additive manufacturing is time-consuming and costly. It typically involves trials with varying settings and destructive testing to evaluate the final phase structure of the experimental samples. In this study, [...] Read more.

The development of process parameters and scanning strategies for bulk metallic glass formation during additive manufacturing is time-consuming and costly. It typically involves trials with varying settings and destructive testing to evaluate the final phase structure of the experimental samples. In this study, we present an alternative method by modelling to predict the influence of the process parameters on the crystalline phase evolution during laser-based powder bed fusion (PBF-LB). The methodology is demonstrated by performing simulations, varying the following parameters: laser power, hatch spacing and hatch length. The results are compared in terms of crystalline volume fraction, crystal number density and mean crystal radius after scanning five consecutive layers. The result from the simulation shows an identical trend for the predicted crystalline phase fraction compared to the experimental estimates. It is shown that a low laser power, large hatch spacing and long hatch lengths are beneficial for glass formation during PBF-LB. The absolute values show an offset though, over-predicted by the numerical model. The method can indicate favourable parameter settings and be a complementary tool in the development of scanning strategies and processing parameters for additive manufacturing of bulk metallic glass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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17 pages, 9713 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Heat Input Effect on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Electron Beam Additive Manufactured (EBAM) Cu-7.5wt.%Al Bronze

by Andrey Filippov, Nikolay Shamarin, Evgeny Moskvichev, Nikolai Savchenko, Evgeny Kolubaev, Ekaterina Khoroshko and Sergei Tarasov

Materials 2021, 14(22), 6948; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14226948 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1805

Abstract

Electron beam additive wire-feed deposition of Cu-7.5wt.%Al bronze on a stainless-steel substrate has been carried out at heat input levels 0.21, 0.255, and 0.3 kJ/mm. The microstructures formed at 0.21 kJ/mm were characterized by the presence of both zigzagged columnar and small equiaxed [...] Read more.

Electron beam additive wire-feed deposition of Cu-7.5wt.%Al bronze on a stainless-steel substrate has been carried out at heat input levels 0.21, 0.255, and 0.3 kJ/mm. The microstructures formed at 0.21 kJ/mm were characterized by the presence of both zigzagged columnar and small equiaxed grains with 10% of Σ3 annealing twin grain boundaries. No equiaxed grains were found in samples obtained at 0.255 and 0.3 kJ/mm. The zigzagged columnar ones were only retained in samples obtained at 0.255 kJ/mm. The fraction of Σ3 boundaries reduced at higher heat input values to 7 and 4%, respectively. The maximum tensile strength was achieved on samples obtained with 0.21 kJ/mm as tested with a tensile axis perpendicular to the deposited wall’s height. More than 100% elongation-to-fracture was achieved when testing the samples obtained at 0.3 kJ/mm (as tested with a tensile axis coinciding with the wall’s height). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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12 pages, 3078 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Process and Microstructure Examination of Flux-Cored Wire Arc Additive Manufactured 18Ni-12Co-4Mo-Ti Maraging Steel

by Krzysztof Pańcikiewicz

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6725; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216725 - 8 Nov 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2049

Abstract

The production of large-size elements using additive manufacturing is a constantly evolving field that includes technological and material solutions. There is a need for a detailed analysis of the process and the products thus manufactured. In line with this trend, the flux-cored wire [...] Read more.

The production of large-size elements using additive manufacturing is a constantly evolving field that includes technological and material solutions. There is a need for a detailed analysis of the process and the products thus manufactured. In line with this trend, the flux-cored wire arc additive manufactured process and the part made of 18Ni-12Co-4Mo-Ti maraging steel were examined. The interpass temperature below 150 °C, the variation of the starting point and the gas flow of 12 L/min with a pre-flow of 2 s ensure the correct shape of the layers. The manufactured part underwent chemical composition analysis, macro- and microscopic examination and hardness measurements; in addition thermodynamic calculations were performed. The part is divided into a light-etched area (bottom part of the sample) with a hardness of 375 ± 12 HV10 and a dark-etched area (top part of the sample) with a hardness of 525 ± 11 HV10. Microscopic observations in the last layers showed supersaturated martensite with primary precipitates of μ-phase intermetallic compounds in intercellular spaces. In the earlier layers aging martensite with austenite and primary precipitates of intermetallic compounds were revealed. The share of austenite was 11.435 ± 1.313%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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12 pages, 4105 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Wear Property of ZrO₂-Added NiCrAlY Prepared by Ultrasonic-Assisted Direct Laser Deposition

by Zhengyao Yi, Chenchen Song, Guohui Zhang, Tianqi Tong, Guangyi Ma and Dongjiang Wu

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5785; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195785 - 3 Oct 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1898

Abstract

For improving the wear properties of NiCrAlY, the 10 wt %, 20 wt % and 30 wt % ZrO₂-added NiCrAlY samples were prepared by ultrasonic-assisted direct laser deposition, respectively. The results showed that the ultrasonic-assisted direct laser deposition can realize the [...] Read more.

For improving the wear properties of NiCrAlY, the 10 wt %, 20 wt % and 30 wt % ZrO₂-added NiCrAlY samples were prepared by ultrasonic-assisted direct laser deposition, respectively. The results showed that the ultrasonic-assisted direct laser deposition can realize the ZrO₂-added NiCrAlY preparation. Furthermore, due to the cavitation effect and agitation of the ultrasound in the molten pool, ultrasonic-assisted could make the upper surface of the samples smoother and flatter, and it also improved the microstructural homogeneity. The microstructure was mainly composed of columnar dendrites, and most of ZrO₂ particles were located in the intergranular regions. The principal phase constituents were found to contain γ-Ni and t-NiZr₂, and the amorphous (Ni, Zr) intermetallic phase generated, because of more rapid solidification after ultrasound assisted. The microhardness was improved slightly with the increase of ZrO₂ contents, rising from 407.9 HV (10% ZrO₂) to 420.4 HV (30% ZrO₂). Correspondingly, wear mass loss was decreased with the maximum drop 22.7% of 30% ZrO₂ compared to that of 10% ZrO₂, and wear mechanisms were mainly abrasive wear with slightly adhesive wear. After applying ultrasound, the oxide islands in samples disappeared, and more ceramic particles were retained. Thus, the hardness and wear performance of the samples were improved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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Review

Jump to: Research

47 pages, 18401 KiB

Open AccessReview

Advancements in the Additive Manufacturing of Magnesium and Aluminum Alloys through Laser-Based Approach

by Sachin Kumar Sharma, Harpreet Singh Grewal, Kuldeep Kumar Saxena, Kahtan A. Mohammed, Chander Prakash, J. Paulo Davim, Dharam Buddhi, Ramesh Raju, Dhanesh G. Mohan and Jacek Tomków

Materials 2022, 15(22), 8122; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228122 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4462

Abstract

Complex structures can now be manufactured easily utilizing AM technologies to meet the pre-requisite objectives such as reduced part numbers, greater functionality, and lightweight, among others. Polymers, metals, and ceramics are the few materials that can be used in AM technology, but metallic [...] Read more.

Complex structures can now be manufactured easily utilizing AM technologies to meet the pre-requisite objectives such as reduced part numbers, greater functionality, and lightweight, among others. Polymers, metals, and ceramics are the few materials that can be used in AM technology, but metallic materials (Magnesium and Aluminum) are attracting more attention from the research and industrial point of view. Understanding the role processing parameters of laser-based additive manufacturing is critical to maximize the usage of material in forming the product geometry. LPBF (Laser powder-based fusion) method is regarded as a potent and effective additive manufacturing technique for creating intricate 3D forms/parts with high levels of precision and reproducibility together with acceptable metallurgical characteristics. While dealing with LBPF, some degree of porosity is acceptable because it is unavoidable; hot ripping and cracking must be avoided, though. The necessary manufacturing of pre-alloyed powder and ductility remains to be the primary concern while dealing with a laser-based additive manufacturing approach. The presence of the Al-Si eutectic phase in AlSi10Mg and AlSi12 alloy attributing to excellent castability and low shrinkage, attaining the most attention in the laser-based approach. Related studies with these alloys along with precipitation hardening and heat treatment processing were discussed. The Pure Mg, Mg-Al alloy, Mg-RE alloy, and Mg-Zn alloy along with the mechanical characteristics, electrochemical durability, and biocompatibility of Mg-based material have been elaborated in the work-study. The review article also summarizes the processing parameters of the additive manufacturing powder-based approach relating to different Mg-based alloys. For future aspects, the optimization of processing parameters, composition of the alloy, and quality of powder material used will significantly improve the ductility of additively manufactured Mg alloy by the LPBF approach. Other than that, the recycling of Mg-alloy powder hasn’t been investigated yet. Meanwhile, the post-processing approach, including a homogeneous coating on the porous scaffolds, will mark the suitability in terms of future advancements in Mg and Al-based alloys. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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26 pages, 7630 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Techniques for Defect Detection: Application to Fusion Welding and Future Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing Processes

by Masoud Shaloo, Martin Schnall, Thomas Klein, Norbert Huber and Bernhard Reitinger

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3697; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103697 - 21 May 2022

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 11013

Abstract

In Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) and fusion welding, various defects such as porosity, cracks, deformation and lack of fusion can occur during the fabrication process. These have a strong impact on the mechanical properties and can also lead to failure of [...] Read more.

In Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) and fusion welding, various defects such as porosity, cracks, deformation and lack of fusion can occur during the fabrication process. These have a strong impact on the mechanical properties and can also lead to failure of the manufactured parts during service. These defects can be recognized using non-destructive testing (NDT) methods so that the examined workpiece is not harmed. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of various NDT techniques for WAAM and fusion welding, including laser-ultrasonic, acoustic emission with an airborne optical microphone, optical emission spectroscopy, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, laser opto-ultrasonic dual detection, thermography and also in-process defect detection via weld current monitoring with an oscilloscope. In addition, the novel research conducted, its operating principle and the equipment required to perform these techniques are presented. The minimum defect size that can be identified via NDT methods has been obtained from previous academic research or from tests carried out by companies. The use of these techniques in WAAM and fusion welding applications makes it possible to detect defects and to take a step towards the production of high-quality final components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Additive Manufacturing (AM) of Metal Alloys: Microstructure and Mechanical Performance)

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