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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Metal Casting, Forming and Heat Treatment".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 July 2020) | Viewed by 53830

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Prof. Dr. Ivan Galvão

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1. ISEL, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon, Rua Conselheiro Emídio Navarro, 1959-007 Lisboa, Portugal
2. CEMMPRE, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Luís Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: solid-state welding; friction stir welding; explosion welding; dissimilar materials welding; solid-state processing
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Prof. Dr. Altino Loureiro

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University of Coimbra, CEMMPRE, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rua Luís Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: welding technology and metallurgy; joining of dissimilar materials; automation of joining processes; solid-state processing; mechanical behavior of welded joints; residual stresses

Prof. Dr. Ricardo Mendes

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University of Coimbra, ADAI, LEDAP, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rua Luís Reis Santos, 3030-788 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: detonation and shock physics; ideal and non-ideal explosives; explosion welding; detonation synthesis

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The recent industrial criteria, focused on obtaining increasingly efficient structures, require the production of multi-material components. However, the manufacturing requirements of these components are not met by conventional welding techniques. Alternative solid-state technologies, such as friction- or impact-based processes, must be considered. Impact welding processes have the advantage of presenting a very short-cycle time, which minimizes the interaction of the materials under high temperature. This strongly contributes to reducing the formation of brittle intermetallic layers, i.e. one of the main concerns in dissimilar welding. Moreover, as the influence of the welding process is confined to a very narrow band, similar and dissimilar welds with high-strength bonding and a minimal heat affected zone (HAZ) can be produced.

The impact welding family encompasses different welding processes, such as explosion welding (EXW), magnetic pulse welding (MPW), vaporizing foil actuator welding (VFAW), laser impact welding (LIW), etc. Although the main operating principle, consisting of a high velocity collision between a flyer and a target is shared by these processes, they differ in the way the flyer is accelerated. These processes also present very different length scales, providing the impact welding family with a broad applicability range. The technical and scientific interest in impact welding is driving the ongoing development of a large number of studies. The present Special Issue will present cutting edge experimental and theoretical research on all aspects of the multidisciplinary field of impact welding. Original research and review papers addressing new developments in similar and/or dissimilar joining by impact welding are valuable scientific contributions to this issue.

Topics of interest include (but are not limited to):

Process developments;
Industrial applications;
Metallurgical characterization;
Mechanical characterization and fracture analysis;
Numerical modelling and simulation.

We look forward to receiving your contributions to this issue.

Prof. Dr. Ivan Galvão
Prof. Dr. Altino Loureiro
Prof. Dr. Ricardo Mendes
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Metals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

Impact welding processes
Explosion welding
Magnetic pulse welding
Vaporizing foil actuator welding
Laser impact welding
Welding process development
Industrial applications
Metallurgical characterization
Mechanical characterization and fracture analysis
Numerical modelling and simulation
Similar and/or dissimilar welding

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 181 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Impact Welding of Materials

by Ivan Galvão, Altino Loureiro and Ricardo Mendes

Metals 2020, 10(12), 1668; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10121668 - 14 Dec 2020

Viewed by 2112

Abstract

Recent industrial criteria, focused on obtaining increasingly efficient structures, require the production of multimaterial components [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

22 pages, 8610 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interface Formation during Collision Welding of Aluminum

by Benedikt Niessen, Eugen Schumacher, Jörn Lueg-Althoff, Jörg Bellmann, Marcus Böhme, Stefan Böhm, A. Erman Tekkaya, Eckhard Beyer, Christoph Leyens, Martin Franz-Xaver Wagner and Peter Groche

Metals 2020, 10(9), 1202; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10091202 - 8 Sep 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2860

Abstract

Collision welding is a high-speed joining technology based on the plastic deformation of at least one of the joining partners. During the process, several phenomena like the formation of a so-called jet and a cloud of particles occur and enable bond formation. However, the interaction of these phenomena and how they are influenced by the amount of kinetic energy is still unclear. In this paper, the results of three series of experiments with two different setups to determine the influence of the process parameters on the fundamental phenomena and relevant mechanisms of bond formation are presented. The welding processes are monitored by different methods, like high-speed imaging, photonic Doppler velocimetry and light emission measurements. The weld interfaces are analyzed by ultrasonic investigations, metallographic analyses by optical and scanning electron microscopy, and characterized by tensile shear tests. The results provide detailed information on the influence of the different process parameters on the classical welding window and allow a prediction of the different bond mechanisms. They show that during a single magnetic pulse welding process aluminum both fusion-like and solid-state welding can occur. Furthermore, the findings allow predicting the formation of the weld interface with respect to location and shape as well as its mechanical strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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24 pages, 10342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Particle Ejection by Jetting and Related Effects in Impact Welding Processes

by Jörg Bellmann, Jörn Lueg-Althoff, Benedikt Niessen, Marcus Böhme, Eugen Schumacher, Eckhard Beyer, Christoph Leyens, A. Erman Tekkaya, Peter Groche, Martin Franz-Xaver Wagner and Stefan Böhm

Metals 2020, 10(8), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10081108 - 18 Aug 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3381

Abstract

Collision welding processes are accompanied by the ejection of a metal jet, a cloud of particles (CoP), or both phenomena, respectively. The purpose of this study is to investigate the formation, the characteristics as well as the influence of the CoP on weld formation. Impact welding experiments on three different setups in normal ambient atmosphere and under vacuum-like conditions are performed and monitored using a high-speed camera, accompanied by long-term exposures, recordings of the emission spectrum, and an evaluation of the CoP interaction with witness pins made of different materials. It was found that the CoP formed during the collision of the joining partners is compressed by the closing joining gap and particularly at small collision angles it can reach temperatures sufficient to melt the surfaces to be joined. This effect was proved using a tracer material that is detectable on the witness pins after welding. The formation of the CoP is reduced with increasing yield strength of the material and the escape of the CoP is hindered with increasing surface roughness. Both effects make welding with low-impact velocities difficult, whereas weld formation is facilitated using smooth surfaces and a reduced ambient pressure under vacuum-like conditions. Furthermore, the absence of surrounding air eases the process observation since exothermic oxidation reactions and shock compression of the gas are avoided. This also enables an estimation of the temperature in the joining gap, which was found to be more than 5600 K under normal ambient pressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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18 pages, 5138 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aluminum-to-Steel Cladding by Explosive Welding

by Gustavo H. S. F. L. Carvalho, Ivan Galvão, Ricardo Mendes, Rui M. Leal and Altino Loureiro

Metals 2020, 10(8), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10081062 - 6 Aug 2020

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 6507

Abstract

The production of aluminum-carbon steel and aluminum-stainless steel clads is challenging, and explosive welding is one of the most suitable processes to achieve them. The present work aims to investigate the coupled effect of two strategies for optimizing the production of these clads by explosive welding: the use of a low-density interlayer and the use of a low-density and low-detonation velocity explosive mixture. A broad range of techniques was used to characterize the microstructural and the mechanical properties of the welds, specifically, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, microhardness and tensile-shear testing with digital image correlation analysis. Although aluminum-carbon steel and aluminum-stainless steel have different weldabilities, clads with sound microstructure and good mechanical behavior were achieved for both combinations. These results were associated with the low values of collision point and impact velocities provided by the tested explosive mixture, which made the weldability difference between these combinations less significant. The successful testing of this explosive mixture indicates that it is suitable to be used for welding very thin flyers and/or dissimilar materials that easily form intermetallic phases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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12 pages, 3676 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Surface Preparation on the Interface of Al-Cu Joints Produced by Magnetic Pulse Welding

by Omid Emadinia, Alexandra Martins Ramalho, Inês Vieira de Oliveira, Geoffrey A. Taber and Ana Reis

Metals 2020, 10(8), 997; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10080997 - 24 Jul 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2499

Abstract

Magnetic pulse welding can be considered as an advanced joining technique because it does not require any shielding atmosphere and input heat similar to conventional welding techniques. However, it requires comprehensive evaluations for bonding dissimilar materials. In addition to processing parameters, the surface preparation of the components, such as target material, needs to be evaluated. Different surface conditions were tested (machined, sand-blasted, polished, lubricated, chemically attacked, and threaded) using a fixed gap and standoff distance for welding. Microstructural observations and tensile testing revealed that the weld quality is dependent on surface preparation. The formation of waviness microstructure and intermetallic compounds were verified at the interface of some joints. However, these conditions did not guarantee the strength. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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17 pages, 8161 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Structural Properties of Interfacial Layers in Tantalum to Stainless Steel Clad with Copper Interlayer Produced by Explosive Welding

by Henryk Paul, Robert Chulist and Izabela Mania

Metals 2020, 10(7), 969; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10070969 - 17 Jul 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4358

Abstract

A systematic study of explosively welded tantalum and 304 L stainless steel clad with M1E copper interlayer was carried out to characterize the microstructure and mechanical properties of interfacial layers. Microstructures were examined using transmission and scanning (SEM) electron microscopy, whereas mechanical properties were evaluated using microhardness measurements and a bending test. The macroscale analyses showed that both interfaces between joined sheets were deformed to a wave-shape with solidified melt zones located preferentially at the crest of the wave and in the wave vortexes. The microscopic analyses showed that the solidified melt zones are composed of nano-/micro-crystalline phases of different chemical composition, incorporating elements from the joined sheets. SEM/electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) measurements revealed the microstructure of layers of parent sheets that undergo severe plastic deformation causing refinement of the initial grains. It has been established that severely deformed areas can undergo recovery and recrystallization already during clad processing. This leads to the formation of new stress-free grains. The microhardness of welded sheets increases significantly as the joining interface is approaching excluding the volumes directly adhering to large melted zones, where a noticeable drop of microhardness, due to recrystallization, is observed. On lateral bending the integrity of the all clad components is conserved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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10 pages, 7669 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Fabrication of Composite Unidirectional Cellular Metals by Using Explosive Compaction

by Masatoshi Nishi, Shigeru Tanaka, Matej Vesenjak, Zoran Ren and Kazuyuki Hokamoto

Metals 2020, 10(2), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10020193 - 29 Jan 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2573

Abstract

Development of a small and highly efficient heat exchanger is an important issue for energy saving. In this study, the fabrication method of unidirectional (UniPore) composite cellular structure with long and uniform unidirectional cells was investigated to be applied as a heat exchanger. The composite UniPore structure was achieved by the unique fabrication method based on the explosive compaction of a particular arrangement of thin copper and stainless steel pipes. Slightly smaller thin stainless steel pipes filled with paraffin are inserted into small thin copper pipes, which are then arranged inside bigger and thicker outer copper pipes. Such an arrangement of pipes is placed centrally into a cylindrical explosion container and surrounded with explosive. Upon explosive detonation, the pipes are compacted and welded together, which results in a UniPore structure with a stainless steel covered inner surface of unidirectional pores to improve the corrosion resistance and high temperature resistance performance. Two different composite UniPore structures arrangements were studied. The microstructure of the new composite UniPore structure was investigated to confirm good bonding between the components (pipes). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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14 pages, 5456 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Explosive Welding of Thin Aluminum Plate onto Magnesium Alloy Plate Using a Gelatin Layer as a Pressure-Transmitting Medium

by Daisuke Inao, Akihisa Mori, Shigeru Tanaka and Kazuyuki Hokamoto

Metals 2020, 10(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10010106 - 9 Jan 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4341

Abstract

Mg alloys are extensively used in various automotive, aerospace, and industrial applications. Their limited corrosion resistance can be enhanced by welding a thin Al plate onto the alloy surface. In this study, we perform the explosive welding of a thin Al plate, accelerated by the detonation of an explosive through a gelatin layer as a pressure-transmitting medium, onto two Mg alloy samples: Mg₉₆Zn₂Y₂ alloy containing a long-period stacking ordered phase in an α-Mg matrix and commercial AZ31. The bonding interface is characterized using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and electron probe microanalysis. Under moderate experimental conditions, the thin Al plates are successfully welded onto the Mg alloys, showing typical wavy interfaces without intermediate layers. Due to the decreased energetic condition corresponding to the use of a thin flyer plate and gelatin medium, the resulting bonding quality is better than that obtained using a regular explosive welding technique. Further, based on the well-known window for explosive welding, we estimate that the experimental conditions for successful bonding are close to the lower welding limit for a thin Al plate with the two Mg alloys considered. These findings may contribute to improving the quality of materials welded with explosive welding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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17 pages, 8169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Welding Window: Comparison of Deribas’ and Wittman’s Approaches and SPH Simulation Results

by Yulia Yu. Émurlaeva, Ivan A. Bataev, Qiang Zhou, Daria V. Lazurenko, Ivan V. Ivanov, Polina A. Riabinkina, Shigeru Tanaka and Pengwan Chen

Metals 2019, 9(12), 1323; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9121323 - 7 Dec 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3596

Abstract

A welding window is one of the key concepts used to select optimal regimes for high-velocity impact welding. In a number of recent studies, the method of smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) was used to find the welding window. In this paper, an attempt is made to compare the results of SPH simulation and classical approaches to find the boundaries of a welding window. The experimental data on the welding of 6061-T6 alloy obtained by Wittman were used to verify the simulation results. Numerical simulation of high-velocity impact accompanied by deformation and heating was carried out by the SPH method in Ansys Autodyn software. To analyze the cooling process, the heat equation was solved using the finite difference method. Numerical simulation reproduced most of the explosion welding phenomena, in particular, the formation of waves, vortices, and jets. The left, right, and lower boundaries found using numerical simulations were in good agreement with those found using Wittman’s and Deribas’s approaches. At the same time, significant differences were found in the position of the upper limit. The results of this study improve understanding of the mechanism of joint formation during high-velocity impact welding. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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17 pages, 8417 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental and Numerical Study on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ti-6Al-4V/Al-1060 Explosive Welding

by Yasir Mahmood, Kaida Dai, Pengwan Chen, Qiang Zhou, Ashfaq Ahmad Bhatti and Ali Arab

Metals 2019, 9(11), 1189; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9111189 - 5 Nov 2019

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 3532

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to study the microstructure and mechanical properties of the Ti6Al4V/Al-1060 plate by explosive welding before and after heat treatment. The welded interface is smooth and straight without any jet trapping. The disturbances near the interface, circular and random pores of Al-1060, and beta phase grains of Ti6Al4V have been observed by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Heat treatment reduces pores significantly and generates a titanium-island-like morphology. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis results show that the maximum portion of the interfacial zone existed in the aluminium side, which is composed of three intermetallic phases: TiAl, TiAl₂ and TiAl₃. Heat treatment resulted in the enlargement of the interfacial zone and conversion of intermentallic phases. Tensile test, shear test, bending test and hardness test were performed to examine the mechanical properties including welding joint qualities. The results of mechanical tests show that the tensile strength and welding joint strength of the interfacial region are larger than one of its constituent material (Al-1060), the microhardness near the interface is maximum. Besides, tensile strength, shear strength and microhardness of heat treated samples are smaller than unheat treated. Smooth particle hydrodynamic (SPH) method is used to simulate the transient behaviour of both materials at the interface. Transient pressure, plastic deformation and temperature on the flyer and base side during the welding process were obtained and analyzed. Furthermore, the numerical simulation identified that almost straight bonding structure is formed on the interface, which is in agreement with experimental observation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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11 pages, 2470 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of Flyer Velocity in Laser Impact Welding

by Huimin Wang and Yuliang Wang

Metals 2019, 9(3), 281; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9030281 - 1 Mar 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3198

Abstract

The flyer velocity is one of the critical parameters for welding to occur in laser impact welding (LIW) and plays a significant role on the welding mechanism study of LIW. It determines the collision pressure between the flyer and the target, and the standoff working distance. In this study, the flyer velocity was measured with Photon Doppler Velocimetry under various experimental conditions. The laser energy efficiency was compared with measured flyer velocity for various laser energy and flyer thickness. In order to reveal the standoff working window, the peak flyer velocity and flyer velocity characteristic before and after the peak velocity and the flyer velocity was measured over long distance. In addition, the rebound behavior of the flyer was captured to confirm the non-metallurgical bonding in the center of the weld nugget in LIW. Furthermore, the flyer size and confinement layer effect on the flyer velocity were investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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11 pages, 5178 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Joining Aluminium Alloy 5A06 to Stainless Steel 321 by Vaporizing Foil Actuators Welding with an Interlayer

by Shan Su, Shujun Chen, Yu Mao, Jun Xiao, Anupam Vivek and Glenn Daehn

Metals 2019, 9(1), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9010043 - 5 Jan 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5175

Abstract

Direct aluminium–stainless steel joints are difficult to create by the vaporized foil actuator welding (VFAW) method because brittle intermetallic compounds (IMCs) tend to form along the interface. The use of an interlayer as a transition layer between the two materials with vast difference in hardness and ductility was proposed as a solution to reduce the formation of the IMCs. In this work, VFAW was used to successfully weld sheet aluminium alloy 5A06 to stainless steel 321 with a 3003 aluminium alloy interlayer. Input energy levels of 6 kJ, 8 kJ, 10 kJ, and 12 kJ were used and as a trend, higher energy inputs resulted in higher impact velocities, larger weld area, and better mechanical properties. In lap-shear and peel testing, all samples failed at the interface of the interlayer and target. At 10 kJ energy input, flyer velocities up to 935 m/s, lap-shear peak load of 44 kN, and peel load of 2.15 kN were achieved. Microstructure characterization and element distribution were performed, and the results show a wavy pattern created between the flyer and interlayer which have similar properties, and the interface between the interlayer and target was dominated by element diffusion and IMCs identified mainly as FeAl₃ and FeAl. The results demonstrate VFAW is a suitable joining method for dissimilar metals such as aluminium alloy and stainless steel, which has a broad and significant application prospect in aerospace and chemical industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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Review

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18 pages, 2661 KiB

Open AccessReview

High-Velocity Impact Welding Process: A Review

by Huimin Wang and Yuliang Wang

Metals 2019, 9(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9020144 - 28 Jan 2019

Cited by 71 | Viewed by 7561

Abstract

High-velocity impact welding is a kind of solid-state welding process that is one of the solutions for the joining of dissimilar materials that avoids intermetallics. Five main methods have been developed to date. These are gas gun welding (GGW), explosive welding (EXW), magnetic pulse welding (MPW), vaporizing foil actuator welding (VFAW), and laser impact welding (LIW). They all share a similar welding mechanism, but they also have different energy sources and different applications. This review mainly focuses on research related to the experimental setups of various welding methods, jet phenomenon, welding interface characteristics, and welding parameters. The introduction states the importance of high-velocity impact welding in the joining of dissimilar materials. The review of experimental setups provides the current situation and limitations of various welding processes. Jet phenomenon, welding interface characteristics, and welding parameters are all related to the welding mechanism. The conclusion and future work are summarized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact Welding of Materials)

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