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Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals

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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Extractive Metallurgy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2021) | Viewed by 39455

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Prof. Dr. Helmut Antrekowitsch

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Department Metallurgy, Montanuniversität Leoben, 8700 Leoben, Austria
Interests: primary metallurgy and recycling of nonferrous metals; pyro- and hydrometallurgy of nonferrous metals; material science of nonferrous metals
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Non-ferrous metals play a decisive role in many areas of application. In addition to bulk metals, those with lower production volumes, such as precious metals, refractory metals, rare earths, etc., are of great importance. In recent years, the process routes of these metals have increasingly become the focus of energy, ecological, and economic optimization. On the one hand, this is related to climate-relevant issues, but also to approaching zero waste in a circular economy. Especially in these areas, enormous efforts are currently being made to improve process technology. However, this is not only about end-of-life products for the recycling process, but also about the large amount of non-ferrous metal-containing by-products, which accumulate during the entire primary and secondary production process. The recycling of these materials not only represents an important contribution to the environment, but these by-products are also partly a high-quality raw material for the extraction of non-ferrous metals. This Special Issue will present the latest research related to advanced techniques for the metallurgy and recycling of nonferrous metals in the field of primary metallurgy and in the recycling of end-of-life products and non-ferrous metal-containing residues. The main focus should be on closing loops and climate relevance in the field of non-ferrous metals production.

Prof. Dr. Helmut Antrekowitsch
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Recycling of Nonferrous Metals
Circular Economy
Primary Metallurgy
Recycling of By-Products
Nonferrous Metals
Technological Metals
Minor Elements
Zero Waste

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 4617 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Potential Recovery Rates of Nickel, Manganese, Cobalt, and Particularly Lithium from NMC-Type Cathode Materials (LiNi_xMn_yCo_zO₂) by Carbo-Thermal Reduction in an Inductively Heated Carbon Bed Reactor

by Stefan Windisch-Kern, Alexandra Holzer, Lukas Wiszniewski and Harald Raupenstrauch

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1844; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111844 - 17 Nov 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3734

Abstract

Within the e-mobility sector, which represents a major driver of the development of the overall lithium-ion battery market, batteries with nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) cathode chemistries are currently gaining ground. This work is specifically dedicated to this NMC battery type and investigates achievable recovery rates of the valuable materials contained when applying an unconventional, pyrometallurgical reactor concept. For this purpose, the currently most prevalent NMC modifications (5-3-2, 6-2-2, and 8-1-1) with carbon addition were analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry, and treated in a lab-scale application of the mentioned reactor principle. It was shown that the reactor concept achieves high recovery rates for nickel, cobalt, and manganese of well above 80%. For lithium, which is usually oxidized and slagged, the transfer coefficient into the slag phase was less than 10% in every experimental trial. Instead, it was possible to remove the vast amount of it via a gas phase, which could potentially open up new paths regarding metal recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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12 pages, 5805 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterisation of Parameters Influencing the Phase Separation in Copper Solvent Extraction Systems Using Oxime-Type Extractants for the Field Operation

by Sangyun Seo, Gwang Seop Lee, Hye Rim Kim and Jong-Gwan Kim

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1785; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111785 - 5 Nov 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2472

Abstract

Solvent extraction (SX) is one of the most widely applied hydrometallurgical processes in copper production from oxide ore. As the high-grade ore deposits have been developed and depleted, now only low-grade ore deposits are being developed and are therefore facing obstacles of extreme processing conditions. This results in leaching gangue minerals and requires a more complicated solvent extraction system. Recently, synergistic solvent extraction has been introduced to separate copper from the leached solution with high impurities. However, operational obstacles arise due to the complicated solvent extraction process, including multi-stages of extraction, and using more than one extractant in a single solvent extraction system. The phase separation in solvent extraction is one of the major issues in field operation. A poor phase separation could affect the entire process and eventually cause production loss. Therefore, in this study, the phase separation behaviours were studied in consideration of the field operation. Major parameters considered in the study were the type of diluent, temperature, mixing speed, solution pH and Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP), and addition of impurities (flocculant and colloidal silica). The phase separation behaviours in the continuous counter-current SX system using a pilot-scale mixer-settler in the above conditions was investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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11 pages, 4424 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

The Recovery of Cu, Co, Zn, and Mn from a Complex Oxide Ore Using an Enhanced Reduction Leaching

by Sangyun Seo, Kyu Sung Han, Sung Il Lee and Myong Jun Kim

Metals 2021, 11(10), 1636; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11101636 - 14 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2751

Abstract

The processing of Cu, Co, and Zn at the Boleo project in Mexico involves two-stage (oxidation–reduction) leaching to extract a total of 85–88% Cu in 4 h. The first stage is an oxidation leaching using sulphuric acid (120 kg/tonne ore) at an Eh of 900 mV for 2 h. Then, the reduction stage takes place in 2 h with SO₂ gas sparging for Mn and Co extraction at an Eh of 350–370 mV. The final extraction rates of metal values are 92% of Mn, 80% of Co, and 60% of Co, respectively, after 4 h of leaching at 70 °C. However, the same metal recoveries were obtained within 2 h using an equal amount of sulphuric acid and the addition of 25 kg of SO₂ per tonne of ore in a single stage leaching in this research. In this case, the Fe extracted from the ore as Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ is believed to have acted as an electrochemical couple contiguously leaching the Cu sulphide and Mn oxides, which also increased the Cu recovery as the Cu mineralised mostly intergrowths in these mineral structure matrices. A significant improvement was made in which the leaching time was halved to 2 h compared to 4 h in the previous plant design and current operation, involving the two-stage oxidation–reduction leaching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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11 pages, 4183 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Algorithmic Modelling of Advanced Chlorination Procedures for Multimetal Recovery

by Lukas Höber, Roberto Lerche and Stefan Steinlechner

Metals 2021, 11(10), 1595; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11101595 - 8 Oct 2021

Viewed by 1594

Abstract

In the course of developing an innovative process for CO₂-optimised valuable metal recovery from precipitation residues accumulating in the zinc industry or nickel industry, the chlorination reactions were investigated. As the basis of small-scale pyrometallurgical experiments, the selected reaction systems were evaluated by means of thermodynamic calculations. With the help of the thermochemical computation software FactSage (Version 8.0), it is possible to simulate the potential valuable metal recovery from residual materials such as jarosite and goethite. In the course of the described investigations, an algorithmically supported simulation scheme was developed by means of Python 3 programming language. The algorithm determines the optimal process parameters for the chlorination of valuable metals, whereby up to 10,000 scenarios can be processed per iteration. This considers the mutual influences and secondary conditions that are neglected in individual calculations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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12 pages, 1492 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Studies on the Formation and Processing of Aluminium Dross with Particular Focus on Special Metals

by Stefan Wibner, Helmut Antrekowitsch and Thomas C. Meisel

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1108; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071108 - 12 Jul 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4624

Abstract

In terms of production volume, aluminium is the leading metal in non-ferrous metallurgy. In particular, the recycling of aluminium-containing residues has strongly increased in recent years and will continue to gain importance in the future. Due to the high affinity of aluminium to oxygen, the oxidation of the molten bath is unavoidable, which leads to the formation of dross on the surface. This has a high content of metallic aluminium and therefore represents a valuable residual material that must be further processed. In the presented work, a study is conducted on the formation and possible further processing of aluminium dross. Within the scope of this experimental work, the pyrometallurgical treatment of Al-dross in the salt drum furnace was evaluated on the basis of an experiment in a TBRC (top blown rotary converter) by adding a salt mixture. In addition, the behaviour of special metals, in particular the rare earth elements (REEs), was investigated during such a melting process. This knowledge will be particularly important in the future, as inadequate scrap processing leads to more of these partially valuable contaminants entering the aluminium scrap cycle. The result of the experimental study was that the metal yield of the dross used in the melting experiment at the Chair of Nonferrous Metallurgy was higher than that achieved by external reprocessing. Regarding the distribution of the rare earths, there was a direct transition of these from the dross into the emerging salt slag phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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12 pages, 1878 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Settling of Copper Phases in Lime Modified Iron Silicate Slag

by Jenny Isaksson, Tommy Vikström, Andreas Lennartsson, Anton Andersson and Caisa Samuelsson

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1098; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071098 - 10 Jul 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2463

Abstract

Copper in discarded slag decreases the profits and copper recovery during the pyrometallurgical extraction processes. The copper losses to slag can be reduced by using a settling furnace, in which mechanically entrained copper droplets separate from the slag under the action of gravity. The settling rate of entrained droplets can be increased by modifying the slag composition and, thus, the slag properties, which are known to influence the settling rate. The knowledge of industrial CaO slag modification in a reduced iron silicate slag with a Fe/SiO₂ ratio close to unity is limited. An industrial trial was thus conducted in an electric settling furnace, where the slag had been pretreated in a fuming furnace, to investigate the effect of CaO slag modification on the final slag copper content. Slag samples were collected from the ingoing and outgoing slag and from within the furnace of batches modified with CaO up to about 16 wt %. The trial was evaluated by comparing the final slag copper content and the copper recovery in the settling furnace. The results indicate that the settling becomes more efficient with the CaO modification as the final slag copper content decreased with increasing CaO content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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14 pages, 4455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Separation and Efficient Recovery of Lithium from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Eva Gerold, Stefan Luidold and Helmut Antrekowitsch

Metals 2021, 11(7), 1091; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11071091 - 8 Jul 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4372

Abstract

The consumption of lithium has increased dramatically in recent years. This can be primarily attributed to its use in lithium-ion batteries for the operation of hybrid and electric vehicles. Due to its specific properties, lithium will also continue to be an indispensable key component for rechargeable batteries in the next decades. An average lithium-ion battery contains 5–7% of lithium. These values indicate that used rechargeable batteries are a high-quality raw material for lithium recovery. Currently, the feasibility and reasonability of the hydrometallurgical recycling of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries is still a field of research. This work is intended to compare the classic method of the precipitation of lithium from synthetic and real pregnant leaching liquors gained from spent lithium-ion batteries with sodium carbonate (state of the art) with alternative precipitation agents such as sodium phosphate and potassium phosphate. Furthermore, the correlation of the obtained product to the used type of phosphate is comprised. In addition, the influence of the process temperature (room temperature to boiling point), as well as the stoichiometric factor of the precipitant, is investigated in order to finally enable a statement about an efficient process, its parameter and the main dependencies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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15 pages, 1701 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Process Parameters on Copper Content in Reduced Iron Silicate Slag in a Settling Furnace

by Jenny Isaksson, Tommy Vikström, Andreas Lennartsson and Caisa Samuelsson

Metals 2021, 11(6), 992; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11060992 - 21 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2413

Abstract

During the pyrometallurgical extraction of copper, a significant fraction of this metal is lost with discard slag, which decreases profits and overall copper recovery. These copper losses can be reduced by using a settling furnace, in which suspended droplets containing copper separate from slag under the influence of gravity. An industrial trial was conducted in a settling furnace to increase the knowledge of the effect of temperature and settling time on the copper content of slag, and thus enhance the settling process to increase copper recovery. Slag samples were collected from four sample points: the ingoing and outgoing slag stream, within the furnace during settling, and the granulated slag. The chemical composition of the slag samples was analyzed and compared between batches with different temperatures and settling times. The appearance of copper and its associated phases were analyzed using a scanning electron microscope with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy detector (SEM-EDS). The results indicated that the outgoing slag copper content increased with an increase in temperature, and it was also concluded to be influenced by the attachment of copper to spinels and gas bubbles. The results indicate that regulating the settling furnace temperature to a lower interval could increase copper recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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15 pages, 4774 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction of Manganese and Iron from a Refractory Coarse Manganese Concentrate

by Junhui Xiao, Kai Zou, Tao Chen, Wenliang Xiong and Bing Deng

Metals 2021, 11(4), 563; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11040563 - 30 Mar 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3895

Abstract

In this research, the coarse manganese concentrate was collected from a manganese ore concentrator in Tongren of China, and the contents of manganese and iron in coarse manganese concentrate were 28.63% and 18.65%, respectively. The majority of the minerals in coarse manganese concentrate occur in rhodochrosite, limonite, quartz, olivine, etc. Calcium chloride, calcium hypochlorite, coke, and coarse manganese concentrate were placed in a roasting furnace to conduct segregation roasting, which resulted in a partial chlorination reaction of iron to produce FeCl₃, ferric chloride reduced to metallic iron and adsorbed onto the coke, and rhodochrosite broken down into manganese oxide. Iron was extracted from the roasted ore using low-intensity magnetic separation, and manganese was further extracted from the low-intensity magnetic separation tailings by high-intensity magnetic separation. The test results showed that iron concentrate with an iron grade of 78.63% and iron recovery of 83.60%, and manganese concentrate with a manganese grade of 54.04% and manganese recovery of 94.82% were obtained under the following optimal conditions: roasting temperature of 1273 K, roasting time of 60 min, calcium chloride dosage of 10%, calcium hypochlorite dosage of 5%, coke dosage of 10%, coke size of −1 mm, grinding fineness of −0.06 mm occupying 90%, low-intensity magnetic field intensity of 0.14 T, and high-intensity magnetic field intensity of 0.65 T. Most minerals in the iron concentrate were Fe, Fe₃O₄, and a small amount of SiO₂ and CaSiO₃; the main minerals in the manganese were MnO, and a small amount of Fe₃O₄, SiO₂, and CaSiO₃. The thermodynamic calculation results are in good agreement with the test results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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14 pages, 2427 KiB

Open AccessReview

Cadmium Recovery from Spent Ni-Cd Batteries: A Brief Review

by Ervins Blumbergs, Vera Serga, Ernests Platacis, Michail Maiorov and Andrei Shishkin

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1714; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111714 - 27 Oct 2021

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7397

Abstract

The significant increase in the demand for efficient electric energy storage during the past decade has promoted an increase in the production and use of Cd-containing batteries. On the one hand, the amount of toxic Cd-containing used batteries is growing, while on the other hand, Cd is on a list of critical raw materials (for Europe). Both of these factors call for the development of effective technology for Cd recovery from spent batteries. The present paper is aimed at providing a short review of the recent progress in Cd recovery from spent batteries. Statistical data from the past decade on the source of Cd, its global production, and Ni-Cd battery recycling are given in the introduction. A short overview of the pyro-and hydro-metallurgical methods of metal production is provided. Recent progress in Cd recovery by commercial methods during the past decade is reviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metallurgy and Recycling of Nonferrous Metals)

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