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Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology
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Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (16 July 2021) | Viewed by 37538

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Sunil Kumar Tripathy

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Guest Editor
Natural Resources Research Institute (NRRI), University of Minnesota Duluth, One Gayley Avenue / PO Box 188, Coleraine, MN 55722, USA
Interests: physical separation; iron ore; dewatering; tailings
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Chenna Rao Borra

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
Interests: extractive metallurgy; waste utilization; recycling; sustainability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The increase in the demand and supply of different metals in recent times has necessitated the efficient processing of different ferroalloy minerals. Ferroalloys, which are broadly referred to as alloys of iron with one or more other elements added to steel melts, are able to achieve distinctive properties and qualities of steel. Also, there are special or noble ferroalloys. Generally, ferroalloys are produced in large quantities, referred to as bulk, which include ferrochromium, ferrochromium-silicon, ferromanganese, ferrosilicon, and silicomanganese, ferromanganese, etc. Similarly, noble ferroalloys are produced in smaller quantities, which include ferroboron, ferromolybdenum, ferronickel, ferroniobium, ferrophosphorus, ferrotitanium, ferrotungsten, and ferrovanadium, etc.

The ferroalloy production process involves a total value chain starting from the mining of raw materials and beneficiation to discard the gangue minerals along with extractive metallurgy (including pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy and electrometallurgy). Ferroalloy production is a cost- and energy-intensive sector which needs special focus. Also, the mining and mineral industry of these ferroalloy minerals has changed significantly over the past few years due to the handling of lower tenor complex ores, adversely impacting on the energy as well as carbon footprint. Furthermore, the current need for special metals has necessitated an efficient scientific process in all the sectors of ferroalloy production.

So, the adoption of efficient and cost-effective technology for the production of ferroalloys is a challenging task to meet the future demands in terms of lowering CO2 emission, along with the protection of the environment by incorporating innovative and sustainable processes. With this, a Special Issue on “Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology” is proposed to be published in the esteemed journal Minerals.

This Special Issue will identify new technologies and developments for the new, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly innovative sustainable technologies for the mining and processing of ferroalloy minerals, as well as extraction of alloy/metals. The journal invites papers on various aspects of ferroalloy mineral processing and technology, including but not limited to the following:

  • Advanced characterization of minerals, ferroalloys/metals, and slag, which includes, special techniques for analysis, geo-metallurgy, development of prediction tools, etc. 
  • Mining and beneficiation of minerals associated with the ferroalloy industry, which include advanced separation methods, dry processing, digital mine planning, etc.
  • Energy-efficient pyrometallurgical processes including pre-treatment methods, alternative energy sources, new technologies and processes to address CO2 emission.
  • Hydrometallurgy and electrometallurgy novel processes for the production of different alloys, as well as metals.
  • Waste-heat recovery, zero-effluent discharge and solid waste utilization approaches towards sustainability in the ferroalloy industry.

Dr. Sunil Kumar Tripathy
Dr. Chenna Rao Borra
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Ferroalloy
  • Mining
  • Mineral processing
  • Characterization
  • Smelting
  • Reduction
  • Metal

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 4153 KiB  
Article
Proposition of a Thermogravimetric Method to Measure the Ferrous Iron Content in Metallurgical-Grade Chromite
by Marcus Sommerfeld and Bernd Friedrich
Minerals 2022, 12(2), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/min12020109 - 19 Jan 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2562
Abstract
The oxidation state of iron in minerals is an important part of analysis. Especially for minerals used as a raw material for metallurgical processes, the oxidation state has a significant impact on the process. One crucial impact is the varying carbon requirement in [...] Read more.
The oxidation state of iron in minerals is an important part of analysis. Especially for minerals used as a raw material for metallurgical processes, the oxidation state has a significant impact on the process. One crucial impact is the varying carbon requirement in smelting furnaces, which can be significantly different if the oxidation state is not assessed correctly. Compared to methods usually used to determine the oxidation state, a relatively simple and fast thermogravimetric method is proposed in this article. As a sample, a detailed analyzed chromite sample from Turkey is used. Bulk chemical analysis, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and QEMSCAN® are used to determine the preconditions of the sample. Mössbauer spectroscopy is used as a reference method to determine the oxidation state of iron in the sample. Uncertified wet chemical methods are investigated as well in this paper and the results are compared with the reference measurement. Using a thermochemical simulation tool, parameters for the thermogravimetric method are investigated and the limitation of this method is examined. The mean ferrous ratio in the sample determined by the proposed method is 75.205%, which is only slightly lower than the ferrous ratio of 76% determined by Mössbauer spectroscopy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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17 pages, 3412 KiB  
Article
Prereduction of Nchwaning Ore in CO/CO2/H2 Gas Mixtures
by Trygve Lindahl Schanche and Merete Tangstad
Minerals 2021, 11(10), 1097; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11101097 - 6 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2391
Abstract
Prereduction of Nchwaning manganese ore was investigated by isothermal reduction between 600 and 800 °C to optimize the conditions for industrial pretreatment of manganese ores. Experiments were conducted in CO/CO2 gas mixtures with and without hydrogen at two different oxygen partial pressures. [...] Read more.
Prereduction of Nchwaning manganese ore was investigated by isothermal reduction between 600 and 800 °C to optimize the conditions for industrial pretreatment of manganese ores. Experiments were conducted in CO/CO2 gas mixtures with and without hydrogen at two different oxygen partial pressures. Ore in the size fraction 9.52–15 mm was reduced in a thermogravimetric furnace, and the O/Mn ratio from the chemical analysis was used to determine the extent of prereduction. The samples were investigated by X-ray diffraction to investigate the evolution of phases under the course of reduction. The X-ray diffraction revealed that bixbyite and braunite (I and II) were reduced to manganosite with no or limited formation of hausmannite. Reduction of iron oxides subsided with wüstite, which is stabilized by manganese in the monoxide phase, and hydrogen was seen to improve the reduction of iron oxides. Modeling revealed that the reduction rate increased 2.8-fold upon increasing the CO content from 30% to 70% in a CO/CO2 gas mixture. The addition of hydrogen improved the reduction rate with factors of 1.3 and 2.6 for the low and the high oxygen partial pressures, respectively. Hence, the optimal conditions for pretreatment can be achieved by keeping the oxygen partial pressure as low as possible while adding hydrogen to the reducing gas and ensuring a high reduction temperature. Successful pretreatment limits the extent of the Boudouard reaction in the submerged arc furnace, reducing the amount of CO produced and, thus, reducing the CO available for pretreatment. Hydrogen is a useful addition to the pretreatment unit since it lowers the oxygen partial pressure and improves the kinetics of prereduction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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10 pages, 3345 KiB  
Article
Influence of Sea Sand on Sintering of V–Ti–Fe Concentrate—A Case Study from Indonesia
by Yuelin Qin, Qingfeng Ling, Ke Zhang and Hao Liu
Minerals 2021, 11(8), 793; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11080793 - 22 Jul 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2262
Abstract
This study explores the feasibility of Indonesian sea sand in replacing V–Ti–Fe concentrate for sintering. The influence of different additive proportions of Indonesian sea sand on sintering index and sinter properties is examined in a laboratory by adjusting the substitution proportion from 5% [...] Read more.
This study explores the feasibility of Indonesian sea sand in replacing V–Ti–Fe concentrate for sintering. The influence of different additive proportions of Indonesian sea sand on sintering index and sinter properties is examined in a laboratory by adjusting the substitution proportion from 5% to 40%. Results imply that vertical sintering speed and utility factor show an apparent decreasing trend, but drum strength, finished product rate and returned fine rate are not significantly affected with the increase in the proportion of Indonesian sea sand and with the decrease in the proportion of V–Ti–Fe concentrate. With the increase in the proportion of sea sand, the reduction degradation index of sinter at low temperatures declines sharply from 65% to 31%, the grade of sinter and content of TiO2 changes slightly, and the reduction degradation and degree decline. Unlike V–Ti–Fe concentrate, Indonesian sea sand does not perform well in sintering, and the substitution proportion should not exceed 35%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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14 pages, 5753 KiB  
Article
Hydrometallurgical Production of Electrolytic Manganese Dioxide (EMD) from Furnace Fines
by Mehmet Ali Recai Önal, Lopamudra Panda, Prasad Kopparthi, Veerendra Singh, Prakash Venkatesan and Chenna Rao Borra
Minerals 2021, 11(7), 712; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11070712 - 1 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5961
Abstract
The ferromanganese (FeMn) alloy is produced through the smelting-reduction of manganese ores in submerged arc furnaces. This process generates large amounts of furnace dust that is environmentally problematic for storage. Due to its fineness and high volatile content, this furnace dust cannot be [...] Read more.
The ferromanganese (FeMn) alloy is produced through the smelting-reduction of manganese ores in submerged arc furnaces. This process generates large amounts of furnace dust that is environmentally problematic for storage. Due to its fineness and high volatile content, this furnace dust cannot be recirculated through the process, either. Conventional MnO2 production requires the pre-reduction of low-grade ores at around 900 °C to convert the manganese oxides present in the ore into their respective acid-soluble forms; however, the furnace dust is a partly reduced by-product. In this study, a hydrometallurgical route is proposed to valorize the waste dust for the production of battery-grade MnO2. By using dextrin, a cheap organic reductant, the direct and complete dissolution of the manganese in the furnace dust is possible without any need for high-temperature pre-reduction. The leachate is then purified through pH adjustment followed by direct electrowinning for electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD) production. An overall manganese recovery rate of >90% is achieved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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20 pages, 7374 KiB  
Article
Influence of Mineralogy on the Dry Magnetic Separation of Ferruginous Manganese Ore—A Comparative Study
by Sharath Kumar Bhoja, Sunil Kumar Tripathy, Yanamandra Rama Murthy, Tamal Kanti Ghosh, C. Raghu Kumar and Deba Prasad Chakraborty
Minerals 2021, 11(2), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11020150 - 31 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4155
Abstract
Magnetic separation is often considered pertinent for manganese ore beneficiation when the ore is abundant with siliceous rich gangue mineral phases. However, the process is deemed to be inapposite for the ferruginous type of ore, and remains a grey area of research. In [...] Read more.
Magnetic separation is often considered pertinent for manganese ore beneficiation when the ore is abundant with siliceous rich gangue mineral phases. However, the process is deemed to be inapposite for the ferruginous type of ore, and remains a grey area of research. In the present investigation, two different types of manganese ore were studied in detail to understand the influence of mineralogy on their magnetic separation performance. Detailed experiments were performed by varying the critical variables of the dry magnetic separator, and the separation features were studied. The ore samples were thoroughly characterized by various techniques, including an automated advanced mineralogical tool. The mineralogical results revealed that primary manganese bearing minerals in both the ores are rich in cryptomelene, pyrolusite, psilomelane, and bixybyite. Similarly, the major gangue minerals were alumina-bearing minerals and iron-bearing phases (hematite and goethite). The optimum grade that could be obtained from single-stage dry magnetic separation was 35.52% Mn, and with a Mn:Fe ratio of 1.77, and 44% Mn recovery in the case of sample 1; whereas, a 33.75% Mn grade, with a Mn:Fe ratio of 1.66 at Mn recovery of 44% was reported for Sample 2. It was observed that both samples had a similar input chemistry (~28% Mn, ~1 Mn: Fe ratio) however, they had distinctive mineralogical assemblages. Furthermore, it was observed that the liberation of manganese mineral was in a course size range, i.e., 300 to 450 µm, while the association of iron and manganese bearing phases was lower in sample 1 when compared to sample 2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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15 pages, 4621 KiB  
Article
Up-Concentration of Chromium in Stainless Steel Slag and Ferrochromium Slags by Magnetic and Gravity Separation
by Frantisek Kukurugya, Peter Nielsen and Liesbeth Horckmans
Minerals 2020, 10(10), 906; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10100906 - 12 Oct 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3282
Abstract
Slags coming from stainless steel (SS) and ferrochromium (FeCr) production generally contain between 1 and 10% Cr, mostly present in entrapped metallic particles (Fe–Cr alloys) and in spinel structures. To recover Cr from these slags, magnetic and gravity separation techniques were tested for [...] Read more.
Slags coming from stainless steel (SS) and ferrochromium (FeCr) production generally contain between 1 and 10% Cr, mostly present in entrapped metallic particles (Fe–Cr alloys) and in spinel structures. To recover Cr from these slags, magnetic and gravity separation techniques were tested for up-concentrating Cr in a fraction for further processing. In case of SS slag and low carbon (LC) FeCr slag a wet high intensity magnetic separation can up-concentrate Cr in the SS slag (fraction <150 µm) from 2.3 wt.% to almost 9 wt.% with a yield of 7 wt.%, and in the LC FeCr slag from 3.1 wt.% to 11 wt.% with a yield of 3 wt.%. Different behavior of Cr-containing spinel’s in the two slag types observed during magnetic separation can be explained by the presence or absence of Fe in the lattice of the Cr-containing spinel’s, which affects their magnetic susceptibility. The Cr content of the concentrates is low compared to chromium ores, indicating that additional processing steps are necessary for a recovery process. In the case of high carbon (HC) FeCr slag, a Cr up-concentration by a factor of more than three (from 9 wt.% to 28 wt.%) can be achieved on the as received slag, after a single dry low intensity magnetic separation step, due to the well-liberated Cr-rich compounds present in this slag. After gravity separation of the HC FeCr slag, a fraction with a Cr content close to high grade Cr ores (≥50% Cr2O3) can be obtained. This fraction represents 12 wt.% of the HC FeCr slag, and can probably be used directly in traditional smelting processes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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12 pages, 4778 KiB  
Article
Effect of MgO and K2O on High-Al Silicon–Manganese Alloy Slag Viscosity and Structure
by Xiangdong Xing, Zhuogang Pang, Jianlu Zheng, Yueli Du, Shan Ren and Jiantao Ju
Minerals 2020, 10(9), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10090810 - 14 Sep 2020
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3473
Abstract
The viscosity, melting proprieties, and molten structure of the high-Al silicon–manganese slag of SiO2–CaO–25 mass% Al2O3–MgO–MnO–K2O system with a varying MgO and K2O content were studied. The results show that with the increase [...] Read more.
The viscosity, melting proprieties, and molten structure of the high-Al silicon–manganese slag of SiO2–CaO–25 mass% Al2O3–MgO–MnO–K2O system with a varying MgO and K2O content were studied. The results show that with the increase in MgO content from 4 to 10 mass%, the measured viscosity and flow activation energy decreases, but K2O has an effect on increasing those of slags. However, the melting temperature increases due to the formation of high-melting-point phase spinel. Meanwhile, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) were conducted to understand the variation of slag structure. The O2− dissociates from MgO can interact with the O0 within Si–O or Al–O network structures, corresponding to the decrease in the trough depth of [SiO4] tetrahedral and [AlO4] tetrahedral. However, when K2O is added into the molten slag, the K+ can accelerate the formation of [AlO4] tetrahedra, resulting in the increase in O0 and O− and the polymerization of the structure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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28 pages, 72244 KiB  
Article
Improving High-Alumina Iron Ores Processing via the Investigation of the Influence of Alumina Concentration and Type on High-Temperature Characteristics
by Yuxiao Xue, Jian Pan, Deqing Zhu, Zhengqi Guo, Congcong Yang, Liming Lu and Hongyu Tian
Minerals 2020, 10(9), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10090802 - 11 Sep 2020
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3460
Abstract
Aiming at the effective utilization of the abundant high-alumina iron ores with low iron grade, the influence of alumina concentration and type on high-temperature characteristics was clarified based on the analyses of eight typical iron ores. The results indicate that high-temperature characteristics of [...] Read more.
Aiming at the effective utilization of the abundant high-alumina iron ores with low iron grade, the influence of alumina concentration and type on high-temperature characteristics was clarified based on the analyses of eight typical iron ores. The results indicate that high-temperature characteristics of iron ores in various alumina types are different. Higher Al2O3 concentration is deleterious to assimilability and liquid phase fluidity, but the influence extent of each alumina type is substantially different. Kaolinite (Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O) contributes to correspondingly better assimilability, followed by hercynite (Fe(Fe, Al)2O4), gibbsite (Al(OH)3), diaspore (AlO(OH)), and free state alumina (Al2O3) in turn. Diaspore promotes relatively higher liquid phase fluidity, followed by kaolinite, free state alumina, and hercynite, while gibbsite possesses the maximum adverse impact. Kaolinite and hercynite are more beneficial to form dendritic or acicular silico-ferrite of calcium and alumina (SFCA) with high strength due to the better reactivity, and gibbsite and diaspore lead to more formation of relatively lower strength lamellar or tabular SFCA, while free state alumina is preferable to form disseminated SCFA with rather poorer strength. Kaolinite and hercynite are the most desirable alumina types for sintering rather than free state alumina. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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Review

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39 pages, 7893 KiB  
Review
Replacing Fossil Carbon in the Production of Ferroalloys with a Focus on Bio-Based Carbon: A Review
by Marcus Sommerfeld and Bernd Friedrich
Minerals 2021, 11(11), 1286; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11111286 - 18 Nov 2021
Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7358
Abstract
The production of ferroalloys and alloys like ferronickel, ferrochromium, ferromanganese, silicomanganese, ferrosilicon and silicon is commonly carried out in submerged arc furnaces. Submerged arc furnaces are also used to upgrade ilmenite by producing pig iron and a titania-rich slag. Metal containing resources are [...] Read more.
The production of ferroalloys and alloys like ferronickel, ferrochromium, ferromanganese, silicomanganese, ferrosilicon and silicon is commonly carried out in submerged arc furnaces. Submerged arc furnaces are also used to upgrade ilmenite by producing pig iron and a titania-rich slag. Metal containing resources are smelted in this furnace type using fossil carbon as a reducing agent, which is responsible for a large amount of direct CO2 emissions in those processes. Instead, renewable bio-based carbon could be a viable direct replacement of fossil carbon currently investigated by research institutions and companies to lower the CO2 footprint of produced alloys. A second option could be the usage of hydrogen. However, hydrogen has the disadvantages that current production facilities relying on solid reducing agents need to be adjusted. Furthermore, hydrogen reduction of ignoble metals like chromium, manganese and silicon is only possible at very low H2O/H2 partial pressure ratios. The present article is a comprehensive review of the research carried out regarding the utilization of bio-based carbon for the processing of the mentioned products. Starting with the potential impact of the ferroalloy industry on greenhouse gas emissions, followed by a general description of bio-based reducing agents and unit operations covered by this review, each following chapter presents current research carried out to produce each metal. Most studies focused on pre-reduction or solid-state reduction except the silicon industry, which instead had a strong focus on smelting up to an industrial-scale and the design of bio-based carbon for submerged arc furnace processes. Those results might be transferable to other submerged arc furnace processes as well and could help to accelerate research to produce other metals. Deviations between the amount of research and scale of tests for the same unit operation but different metal resources were identified and closer cooperation could be helpful to transfer knowledge from one area to another. Life cycle assessment to produce ferronickel and silicon already revealed the potential of bio-based reducing agents in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, but was not carried out for other metals until now. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ferroalloy Minerals Processing and Technology)
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