Minerals

Editorial

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Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for Special Issue “Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines”

by Melida Gutierrez

Minerals 2020, 10(11), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10111015 - 15 Nov 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2640

Abstract

Abandoned mines are an abundant and widespread feature [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

Research

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19 pages, 3930 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Crystal Chemistry of Carnotite in Abandoned Mine Wastes

by Sumant Avasarala, Adrian J. Brearley, Michael Spilde, Eric Peterson, Ying-Bing Jiang, Angelica Benavidez and José M. Cerrato

Minerals 2020, 10(10), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10100883 - 4 Oct 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3750

Abstract

The crystal chemistry of carnotite (prototype formula: K₂(UO₂)₂(VO₄)₂·3H₂O) occurring in mine wastes collected from Northeastern Arizona was investigated by integrating spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and x-ray diffraction analyses. Raman spectroscopy confirms that [...] Read more.

The crystal chemistry of carnotite (prototype formula: K₂(UO₂)₂(VO₄)₂·3H₂O) occurring in mine wastes collected from Northeastern Arizona was investigated by integrating spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and x-ray diffraction analyses. Raman spectroscopy confirms that the uranyl vanadate phase present in the mine waste is carnotite, rather than the rarer polymorph vandermeerscheite. X-ray diffraction patterns of the carnotite occurring in these mine wastes are in agreement with those reported in the literature for a synthetic analog. Carbon detected in this carnotite was identified as organic carbon inclusions using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) analyses. After excluding C and correcting for K-drift from the electron microprobe analyses, the composition of the carnotite was determined as 8.64% K₂O, 0.26% CaO, 61.43% UO₃, 20.26% V₂O₅, 0.38% Fe₂O₃, and 8.23% H₂O. The empirical formula, (K_1.66Ca_0.043Al(OH)²⁺_0.145 Fe(OH)²⁺_0.044)((U_0.97)O₂)₂((V_1.005)O₄)₂·4H₂O of the studied carnotite, with an atomic ratio 1.9:2:2 for K:U:V, is similar to the that of carnotite (K₂(UO₂)₂(VO₄)₂·3H₂O) reported in the literature. Lattice spacing data determined using selected area electron diffraction (SAED)-TEM suggests: (1) complete amorphization of the carnotite within 120 s of exposure to the electron beam and (2) good agreement of the measured d-spacings for carnotite in the literature. Small differences between the measured and literature d-spacing values are likely due to the varying degree of hydration between natural and synthetic materials. Such information about the crystal chemistry of carnotite in mine wastes is important for an improved understanding of the occurrence and reactivity of U, V, and other elements in the environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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12 pages, 1056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ecotoxicity of Pore Water in Meadow Soils Affected by Historical Spills of Arsenic-Rich Tailings

by Agnieszka Dradrach, Katarzyna Szopka and Anna Karczewska

Minerals 2020, 10(9), 751; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10090751 - 25 Aug 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2015

Abstract

This study was carried out in Złoty Stok, a historical centre of gold and arsenic mining. Two kinds of soil material, containing 5020 and 8000 mg/kg As, represented a floodplain meadow flooded in the past by tailings spills and a dry meadow developed [...] Read more.

This study was carried out in Złoty Stok, a historical centre of gold and arsenic mining. Two kinds of soil material, containing 5020 and 8000 mg/kg As, represented a floodplain meadow flooded in the past by tailings spills and a dry meadow developed on the plateau built of pure tailings, respectively. The effects of soil treatment with a cattle manure and mineral fertilizers were examined in an incubation experiment. Soil pore water was collected after 2, 7, 21, 90, and 270 days, using MacroRhizon samplers and analyzed on As concentrations and toxicity, and assessed in three bioassays: Microtox, the Microbial Assay for Risk Assessment (MARA), and Phytotox, with Sinapis alba as a test plant. In all samples, As concentrations were above 4.5 mg/L. Fertilization with manure caused an intensive release of As, and its concentration in pore water of floodplain soil reached 81.8 mg/L. Mineral fertilization caused a release of As only from the pure tailings soil. The results of bioassays, particularly of Phytotox and MARA, correlated well with As concentrations, while Microtox indices depended additionally on other factors. Very high toxicity was associated with As > 20 mg/L. Despite an effect of “aging”, pore water As remained at the level of several mg/L, causing a potential environmental risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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20 pages, 5541 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

A Geospatial Database for Effective Mine Rehabilitation in Australia

by Tim T. Werner, Peter M. Bach, Mohan Yellishetty, Fatemeh Amirpoorsaeed, Stuart Walsh, Alec Miller, Matthew Roach, Andrew Schnapp, Philippa Solly, Youming Tan, Chloe Lewis, Ehren Hudson, Kim Heberling, Thomas Richards, Han Chung Chia, Melissa Truong, Tushar Gupta and Xiaoling Wu

Minerals 2020, 10(9), 745; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10090745 - 22 Aug 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 14540

Abstract

The Australian landscape is affected by abandoned mines that pose environmental, public health and safety risks. To promote the beneficial reuse, rehabilitation and/or remediation of these sites and understand their spatial arrangement, we compiled, classified and analysed a country-wide geospatial database of all [...] Read more.

The Australian landscape is affected by abandoned mines that pose environmental, public health and safety risks. To promote the beneficial reuse, rehabilitation and/or remediation of these sites and understand their spatial arrangement, we compiled, classified and analysed a country-wide geospatial database of all known inactive hard rock mine sites. Following extensive review and classification of disparate records of such sites that have been terminated, neglected or classified as heritage, plus those under care and maintenance in Australia, we assessed state-by-state reporting and cross-border rehabilitation requirements. This was enabled by the development of the Mining Incidence Documentation & Assessment Scheme (MIDAS) that can be used to catalogue and compare active or inactive mine data regardless of reporting conventions. At a national level, and with four case studies, we performed GIS-based spatial analyses and environmental risk assessments to demonstrate potential uses of our database. Analyses considered the proximity of sites to factors such as infrastructure and sensitive environmental receptors. As Australia struggles to manage the ongoing technical, socioeconomic and environmental challenges of effective mine rehabilitation, the insights enabled by this national-level spatial database may be key to developing coordinated responses that extend beyond state boundaries. Our classification and methodology are easily transferable, thereby encouraging more formalized, systematic and widespread documentation of abandoned mines worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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19 pages, 5739 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Options for Remediation of Contaminated Mine Site Drainage Entering the River Teign, Southwest England

by Abigail Jordan, Rachel Hill, Adrienne Turner, Tyrone Roberts and Sean Comber

Minerals 2020, 10(8), 721; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10080721 - 17 Aug 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4217

Abstract

The river Teign in Devon has come under scrutiny for failing to meet environmental quality standards for ecotoxic metals due to past mining operations. A disused mine known as Bridford Barytes mine, has been found to contribute a significant source of Zn, Cd [...] Read more.

The river Teign in Devon has come under scrutiny for failing to meet environmental quality standards for ecotoxic metals due to past mining operations. A disused mine known as Bridford Barytes mine, has been found to contribute a significant source of Zn, Cd and Pb to the river. Recently, studies have been focused on the remediation of such mine sites using low-cost treatment methods to help reduce metal loads to the river downstream. This paper explores the metal removal efficiency of red mud, a waste product from the aluminium industry, which has proven to be an attractive low-cost treatment method for adsorbing toxic metals. Adsorption kinetics and capacity experiments reveal metal removal efficiencies of up to 70% within the first 2 h when red mud is applied in pelletized form. Further, it highlights the potential of biochar, another effective adsorbent observed to remove >90% Zn using agricultural feedstock. Compliance of the Teign has been investigated by analysing dissolved metal concentrations and bioavailable fractions of Zn to assess if levels are of environmental concern. By applying a real-world application model, this study reveals that compressed pellets and agricultural biochar offer an effective, low-cost option to reducing metal concentrations and thus improving the quality of the river Teign. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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16 pages, 4518 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Electrical Resistivity Tomography as a Support Tool for Physicochemical Properties Assessment of Near-Surface Waste Materials in a Mining Tailing Pond (El Gorguel, SE Spain)

by María Gabarrón, Pedro Martínez-Pagán, Marcos A. Martínez-Segura, María C. Bueso, Silvia Martínez-Martínez, Ángel Faz and José A. Acosta

Minerals 2020, 10(6), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10060559 - 21 Jun 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4327

Abstract

The legacy of the mining industry has left a large number of tailing ponds in the Cartagena–La Unión mining district exposed to water and wind erosion, which causes serious environmental and health problems and requires remediation. Before applying any remediation technique, an intensive [...] Read more.

The legacy of the mining industry has left a large number of tailing ponds in the Cartagena–La Unión mining district exposed to water and wind erosion, which causes serious environmental and health problems and requires remediation. Before applying any remediation technique, an intensive sampling of the materials infilling the pond is required to determine the geochemistry of the pond, which will condition the remediation process. However, sampling the large number of tailing ponds that compose the district could be expensive. Thus, the main objective of this study is to evaluate the usefulness of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) as a non-invasive tool to provide an image of spatial subsurface resistivity distribution and its relation to the physicochemical composition of near-surface mine wastes. To achieve this objective, three short ERT profiles were conducted, and 12 samples in each profile were collected at different depths for its geochemical characterization. Several non-linear regression models were fitted to predict physicochemical properties and metal concentrations from electrical resistivity measures. As a result, a high resistivity area was depicted in the ERT profiles G2 and G3, while the low resistivity ERT profile G1 was also obtained in accordance with the site’s surficial characteristics. Relationships among low resistivity values and high salinity, clay content, high metal concentrations, and mobility were established. Specifically, calibrated models were obtained for electrical conductivity, particle sizes of 0.02–50 µm and 50–2000 µm, total Zn and Cd concentration, and bioavailable Ni, Cd, and Fe. The ERT technique was shown to be a useful tool for the approximation of the location and distribution of the highest ranges of fine particle sizes, moisture, and, to a lesser extent, metal accumulation in the near-surface waste materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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27 pages, 5978 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Successful Ecological Regeneration of Opencast Coal Mine Spoils through Forestation: From Cradle to Grove

by Martin Haigh, Patricia Woodruffe, Margaret D’Aucourt, Elanor Alun, Gillian Wilding, Susan Fitzpatrick, Ekaterina Filcheva and Maya Noustorova

Minerals 2020, 10(5), 461; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10050461 - 20 May 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4333

Abstract

The reclamation of surface (opencast) coal mines is not always successful; there remains a legacy of degraded land that burdens local communities. This article evaluates a community-oriented, low-cost means of geoecological regeneration, the “Cradle for Nature” strategy, which uses mosaic tree planting to [...] Read more.

The reclamation of surface (opencast) coal mines is not always successful; there remains a legacy of degraded land that burdens local communities. This article evaluates a community-oriented, low-cost means of geoecological regeneration, the “Cradle for Nature” strategy, which uses mosaic tree planting to foster positive natural ecological processes. Results show that, while the autocompaction of minestones quickly raises soil densities to levels hostile to plant growth, forestation helps moderate soil densities. Weathering concentrates metals in minestones, but 14 years of forestation reduced the loadings of five metals by 35–52%. Twenty years of forestation doubled soil organic carbon to >7%; increased bacilli from 7% to 46%; actinomycetes from 10% to 26%; and soil microbe counts 12–15 times, especially in tree plantings treated with fertiliser. Soils under trees also supported a significantly greater earthworm biomass than under grass but, while open-canopy plantings had increased ground flora biodiversity, closed-canopy plantings had lower diversity and biomass. Following closure to grazing, ground biomass increased sevenfold. Young trees act as bird perches and significantly increase seed fall. Small mammal biomass and biodiversity increases after tree planting and higher predators appear. Varteg’s constructed forest provides an effective “cradle” for an emergent geoecological system and its habitat mosaic maximises biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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15 pages, 1540 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Native Seedling Colonization on Stockpiled Mine Soils Is Constrained by Site Conditions and Competition with Exotic Species

by Kathy A. Baethke, Laura W. Ploughe, Wendy C. Gardner and Lauchlan H. Fraser

Minerals 2020, 10(4), 361; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10040361 - 17 Apr 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2707

Abstract

Sites disturbed through mining practices can be challenging to restore with native vegetation, as the path of ecological succession is often unknown and hard to predict. We conducted an establishment study that explored restoration strategies to increase native vegetation on a newly formed [...] Read more.

Sites disturbed through mining practices can be challenging to restore with native vegetation, as the path of ecological succession is often unknown and hard to predict. We conducted an establishment study that explored restoration strategies to increase native vegetation on a newly formed stockpile of soil at New Gold’s New Afton Mine in British Columbia, Canada. Establishment of native species in semi-arid grasslands is often constrained by seed and seedling microsite limitations, so treatments were imposed to assist in reducing these limitations. We established a fully factorial design with a native seed treatment (seeded and unseeded) and four soil preparations: raking, hydroseed slurry, a combination of raking and hydroseed slurry, and no preparation. Raking assisted in increasing total seedling establishment, regardless of whether the site was seeded or not. Raking and seeding increased the number of native seedlings and resulted in the greatest species richness, suggesting that native seedling establishment is primarily seed-limited, but that microclimate is also important for the establishment of some native seeds. We found that exotic species were able to capitalize on the disturbance and outcompeted the native species, but reducing seed-limitations by sowing more native seeds and increasing available microclimates by raking or tilling may increase native species’ success at the establishment phase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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12 pages, 1803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metal Content of Stream Sediments as a Tool to Assess Remediation in an Area Recovering from Historic Mining Contamination

by Mélida Gutiérrez, Xiaomin Qiu, Zachary J. Collette and Zachary T. Lurvey

Minerals 2020, 10(3), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10030247 - 8 Mar 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3158

Abstract

Lead and zinc mining was booming in the early 1900s in and near Joplin, Missouri; a town within the Tri-State Mining District, USA. After the ore became depleted, mining companies moved out, leaving a profoundly disturbed land. Presently, over 90% of the land [...] Read more.

Lead and zinc mining was booming in the early 1900s in and near Joplin, Missouri; a town within the Tri-State Mining District, USA. After the ore became depleted, mining companies moved out, leaving a profoundly disturbed land. Presently, over 90% of the land has been remediated. We collected sediment samples along two creeks flowing through the historically contaminated area that have been identified as major contributors of metals to downstream reservoirs, Center Creek (14 samples) and Turkey Creek (30 samples). Sediment metal content was determined by aqua regia extraction, the potentially bioavailable fraction by 0.11 M acetic acid extraction, and toxicity by ΣPEC-Q_Cd,Pb,Zn. Zinc and lead content in sediments were high in both creeks notwithstanding remediation actions; e.g., median concentrations of 521 mg/kg Pb and 5425 mg/kg Zn in Center Creek, corresponding to 19 and 52 times the background concentration. The metals’ distribution followed no discernible pattern downstream. The potentially bioavailable fraction varied between 0.36% (Pb, Center Creek) and 4.96% (Zn, Turkey Creek). High toxicity was found in 40% of the samples in Turkey Creek and 78.5% of the samples in Center Creek. While this level of toxicity would likely affect aquatic organisms, its limited mobility under alkaline conditions suggests a lesser threat to humans. On the other hand, this high toxicity will likely persist in sediments for at least a few decades, based on their high metal content and low mobility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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19 pages, 5327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Appraisal of Strategies for Dealing with the Physical Hazards of Abandoned Surface Mine Excavations: A Case Study of Frankie and Nyala Mines in South Africa

by Sphiwe Emmanuel Mhlongo, Francis Amponsah-Dacosta and Armstrong Kadyamatimba

Minerals 2020, 10(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10020145 - 7 Feb 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4021

Abstract

In order to improve the safety status and the quality of the landscape affected by surface mining, it is important that practical strategies for dealing with the excavations are identified. The aim of the work presented in this paper was to carry out [...] Read more.

In order to improve the safety status and the quality of the landscape affected by surface mining, it is important that practical strategies for dealing with the excavations are identified. The aim of the work presented in this paper was to carry out an appraisal of the strategies for addressing the physical hazards of abandoned surface mine excavations in two mines in the Limpopo Province, South Africa. The method used involved carrying out field characterization of the current state and uses of the excavations, as well as their physical hazards of the surface mine excavations in the study area. The characterization took into consideration. Possible strategies for addressing the physical hazards of the excavations are identified, and their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analyzed. The Quantitative Strategic Planning Matrix (QSPM) was performed on each of the identified strategies with the purpose of determining their attractiveness based on their SWOT factors. The results of the study showed that using a combination of strategies to deal with the physical hazards of the abandoned mine excavations was the most attractive approach followed by the grading of the slopes of the excavations to improve their stability, while promoting their safe alternative uses. The no-action option and backfilling of the excavations were the least attractive strategies for dealing with the abandoned surface mine excavations. The study demonstrated how semi-quantitative tools, such as the SWOT analysis and QSPM could assist in finding practical approaches for dealing with the problems of abandoned mine sites or features. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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11 pages, 1916 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Revealing Tropical Technosols as an Alternative for Mine Reclamation and Waste Management

by Francisco Ruiz, Fabio Perlatti, Daniel P. Oliveira and Tiago O. Ferreira

Minerals 2020, 10(2), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10020110 - 28 Jan 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4669

Abstract

This study was based on the premise that Technosols constructed under tropical conditions are a valuable tool for inexpensive mine reclamation programs. These anthropogenic soils are still poorly studied in Brazil and are not recognized by the Brazilian Soil Classification System. Given the [...] Read more.

This study was based on the premise that Technosols constructed under tropical conditions are a valuable tool for inexpensive mine reclamation programs. These anthropogenic soils are still poorly studied in Brazil and are not recognized by the Brazilian Soil Classification System. Given the importance of mining to the Brazilian economy (the sector accounts for 20% of all products exported and 5% of the gross domestic product), there is an urgency to properly manage the large amount of waste produced. For this purpose, we suggest the use of Technosols as a strategy to overcome both land degradation and waste production by presenting a successful case of mine rehabilitation combining limestone wastes and tropical grasses. We show that Technosols constructed from the mine spoils can develop into soils suitable for agriculture in a few years, promoting land reclamation and producing food and energy. These soils are also valuable resources that can provide important ecosystem services, such as organic carbon storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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15 pages, 8008 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporation of the Method of Ranking the Hazards of Abandoned Mine Entries into a Rule-Based Expert System

by Sphiwe Emmanuel Mhlongo, Francis Amponsah-Dacosta and Armstrong Kadyamatimba

Minerals 2019, 9(10), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/min9100600 - 30 Sep 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3122

Abstract

The work of quantifying the problems of abandoned mines is the first step towards the rehabilitation of these mines. As the result, in all countries that have many abandoned mines, researchers and different organizations have been making efforts to develop decision-making tools, methods, [...] Read more.

The work of quantifying the problems of abandoned mines is the first step towards the rehabilitation of these mines. As the result, in all countries that have many abandoned mines, researchers and different organizations have been making efforts to develop decision-making tools, methods, and techniques for rehabilitation of abandoned mines. This paper describes the work conducted to incorporate the method for ranking the problems of abandoned mine entries into a rule-based expert system. This is done using the web-based expert system platform provided by expert system (ES)-Builder Shell. The ES is tested by applying it to the case study of the problems of abandoned mine entries in the areas of Giyani and Musina, Limpopo Province of South Africa. This paper gives details of the procedure followed in creating the production rules of the ES for ranking problems of abandoned mine entries (ES-RAME), its attributes, and the results of its application to the selected case study. The use of the ES-RAME is found to be important for setting the objectives and priorities of the rehabilitation of abandoned mine entries. In addition, the incorporation of the ranking method into the expert system ensured that the procedure of the tanking method is clearly communicated and preserved as the rules of the ES. The expert system also has the advantages of being consistent in its guidance, and it gives the user an opportunity to go through the ranking process of the system using any possible fictitious information; this gives the user a feel for the ranking process and the data required when using the ES-RAME. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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Review

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21 pages, 4017 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Realizing Beneficial End Uses from Abandoned Pit Lakes

by Cherie D. McCullough, Martin Schultze and Jerry Vandenberg

Minerals 2020, 10(2), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10020133 - 2 Feb 2020

Cited by 58 | Viewed by 9081

Abstract

Pit lakes can represent significant liabilities at mine closure. However, depending upon certain characteristics of which water quality is key, pit lakes often also present opportunities to provide significant regional benefit and address residual closure risks of both their own and overall project [...] Read more.

Pit lakes can represent significant liabilities at mine closure. However, depending upon certain characteristics of which water quality is key, pit lakes often also present opportunities to provide significant regional benefit and address residual closure risks of both their own and overall project closure and even offset the environmental costs of mining by creating new end uses. These opportunities are widely dependent on water quality, slope stability, and safety issues. Unfortunately, many pit lakes have continued to be abandoned without repurposing for an end use. We reviewed published pit lake repurposing case studies of abandoned mine pit lakes. Beneficial end use type and outcome varied depending upon climate and commodity, but equally important were social and political dynamics that manifest as mining company commitments or regulatory requirements. Many end uses have been realized: passive and active recreation, nature conservation, fishery and aquaculture, drinking and industrial water storage, greenhouse carbon fixation, flood protection and waterway remediation, disposal of mine and other waste, mine water treatment and containment, and education and research. Common attributes and reasons that led to successful repurposing of abandoned pit lakes as beneficial end uses are discussed. Recommendations are given for all stages of mine closure planning to prevent pit lake abandonment and to achieve successful pit lake closure with beneficial end uses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Use of Abandoned Mines)

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