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Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences

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A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Sports Nutrition".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2024) | Viewed by 34057

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Dr. Valentín E. Fernández-Elías

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Sports Sciences, European University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: exercise; physical activity; sports; hydration; health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Olga López Torres

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Co-Guest Editor

Faculty of Sports Sciences, European University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: coronavirus; lockdown; home-based training; fitness; physical condition in older adults; functionality; physical activity; sedentary behavior
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The number of participants in sports, whether amateur and professional, or in highly demanding exercise modalities, such as high-intensity functional training or ultra-endurance racing, has increased in recent decades. Both males and females are increasingly engaging in fitness exercise programs to improve their health and wellness, as well as in efforts to reach their limits. Therefore, specific knowledge about nutrition and training strategies, including training programs, training methods, and the optimal concurrent nutrition interventions to enhance performance, health, and wellbeing in males and females must be developed extensively. Further, females and gender differences have been investigated to a lesser extent, meaning that it is common in practice to apply similar strategies for both sexes. Due to the physiological, anatomical, and biological differences between males and females, it becomes essential to independently study males and women and establish specific approaches.

Along these lines, there is an increasing demand to adapt combined training programs with nutritional control, the ingestion of nutritional supplements, and/or use of ergogenic aids to address the peculiarities of females and males (e.g., hormones regulation, nutritional demands,...) in order to help competition and fitness, enhance adaptations, and thus optimize improvements in performance, wellness, and health.

Therefore, in this Special Issue, we aim to publish original research articles, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses addressing the necessity of deeply studying the specific effects of combined training and nutrition interventions in female and male exercise practitioners’ adaptations, health, and performance.

Dr. Valentín E. Fernández-Elías
Dr. Olga López Torres
Guest Editors

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Keywords

females
males
training
exercise
supplements
ergogenic aids
sport nutrition
fitness
performance

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review, Other

3 pages, 191 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences

by Olga López Torres and Valentín E. Fernández-Elías

Nutrients 2024, 16(23), 3979; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16233979 - 21 Nov 2024

Viewed by 488

Abstract

As sports nutrition research evolves, a growing body of evidence highlights the importance of sex-based differences in responses to dietary interventions for athletic performance [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review, Other

21 pages, 3846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sportomics Analyses of the Exercise-Induced Impact on Amino Acid Metabolism and Acute-Phase Protein Kinetics in Female Olympic Athletes

by Renan Muniz-Santos, Adriana Bassini, Jefferson Falcão, Eduardo Prado, LeRoy Martin III, Vinod Chandran, Igor Jurisica and L. C. Cameron

Nutrients 2024, 16(20), 3538; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16203538 - 18 Oct 2024

Viewed by 916

Abstract

Background: Exercise can be used as a model to understand immunometabolism. Biological data on elite athletes are limited, especially for female athletes, including relevant data on acute-phase proteins and amino acid metabolism. Methods: We analyzed acute-phase proteins and amino acids collected at South American, Pan-American, and Olympic Games for 16 Olympic sports. We compared female and male elite athletes (447 vs. 990 samples) across four states (fasting, pre-exercise, post-exercise, and resting) to understand sex-specific immunometabolic responses in elite athletes. Results: Considering all states and sports, we found that elite female athletes exhibited higher concentrations of C-reactive protein, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, myeloperoxidase, haptoglobin, and IGF1, with ratios ranging from 1.2 to 2.0 (p < 0.001). Women exhibited lower concentrations of most amino acids, except for glutamate and alanine. Although almost 30% lower in women, branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) showed a similar pattern in all states (ρ ≥ 0.9; p < 0.001), while aromatic amino acids (AAAs) showed higher consumption during exercise in women. Conclusion: We established sex dimorphism in elite athletes’ metabolic and inflammatory responses during training and competition. Our data suggest that female athletes present a lower amino acid response towards central fatigue development than male athletes. Understanding these differences can lead to insights into sex-related immuno-metabolic responses in sports or other inflammatory conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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20 pages, 1977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protein Supplementation Increases Adaptations to Low-Volume, Intra-Session Concurrent Training in Untrained Healthy Adults: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial

by Dejan Reljic, Nilas Zieseniss, Hans Joachim Herrmann, Markus Friedrich Neurath and Yurdagül Zopf

Nutrients 2024, 16(16), 2713; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16162713 - 15 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1963

Abstract

Combined endurance and resistance training, also known as “concurrent training”, is a common practice in exercise routines. While concurrent training offers the benefit of targeting both cardiovascular and muscular fitness, it imposes greater physiological demands on the body compared to performing each modality in isolation. Increased protein consumption has been suggested to support adaptations to concurrent training. However, the impact of protein supplementation on responses to low-volume concurrent training is still unclear. Forty-four untrained, healthy individuals (27 ± 6 years) performed two sessions/week of low-volume high-intensity interval training on cycle ergometers followed by five machine-based resistance training exercises for 8 weeks. Volunteers randomly received (double-blinded) 40 g of whey-based protein (PRO group) or an isocaloric placebo (maltodextrin, PLA group) after each session. Maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max) and overall fitness scores (computed from volunteers’ VO_2max and one-repetition maximum scores, 1-RM) significantly increased in both groups. The PRO group showed significantly improved 1-RM in all major muscle groups, while the PLA group only improved 1-RM in chest and upper back muscles. Improvements in 1-RM in leg muscles were significantly greater in the PRO group versus the PLA group. In conclusion, our results indicate that adaptations to low-volume concurrent training, particularly leg muscle strength, can be improved with targeted post-exercise protein supplementation in untrained healthy individuals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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13 pages, 725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Sports Nutrition Education Based on Self-Determination Theory for Male University Rowing Athletes: A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Naoko Enatsu, Jun Seino, Taishi Tsuji and Mitsugi Ogata

Nutrients 2024, 16(6), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16060799 - 11 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2350

Abstract

To resolve problems in the dietary life of university athletes, education is essential to enable athletes to change their own dietary behavior. The purpose of this research was to verify the effectiveness of sports nutrition education based on self-determination theory (SDT). The participants were 36 male university rowers. A stratified randomized comparison test was conducted by student year (SDT group and control group). Sports nutrition education was held three times, via an Internet conferencing system. Furthermore, group work over social media was used for the SDT group. Four evaluations were carried out based on anthropometric measurements, a brief self-administered diet history questionnaire (BDHQ), sports nutrition knowledge test (SNK), and treatment self-regulation questionnaire (TSRQ). The results showed no differences between the two groups. However, for the intragroup factor, “Protein”, a significant difference was evident in the self-determination theory group (50.0 ± 28.5, 78.6 ± 28.1, 81.0 ± 21.5, p < 0.000, units: %) and improved knowledge (p = 0.002, p = 0.002). And for the BDHQ, the self-determination theory group also showed significant differences and increased their intake of green and yellow vegetables, fruits, and dairy products (159.1 ± 74.2–126.7 ± 70.6, p = 0.009, 306.0 ± 196.2–195.2 ± 146.1, p = 0.020, 257.0 ± 147.0–183.3 ± 167.9, p = 0.040, units: g). In conclusion, sports nutrition education based on SDT improved dietary knowledge and increased food requirements for athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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14 pages, 3820 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Glycerophospholipids in Red Blood Cells Are Associated with Aerobic Performance in Young Swimmers

by Álex Aparecido Rosini Silva, Vanessa Bertolucci, Pedro Paulo Menezes Scariot, João Pedro da Cruz, Flavio Marcio Macedo Mendes, Danilo Cardoso de Oliveira, Catharina Delry Plumari, Ivan Gustavo Masseli Dos Reis, Andreia Melo Porcari and Leonardo Henrique Dalcheco Messias

Nutrients 2024, 16(6), 765; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16060765 - 7 Mar 2024

Viewed by 1409

Abstract

This study aimed to characterize the composition of lipids in the red blood cells (RBCs) of adolescent swimmers and correlate this lipidome with the aerobic performance of the athletes. Five experimental assessments were performed by 37 adolescent swimmers. During the first session, the athletes went to the laboratory facility for venous blood sampling. The critical velocity protocol was conducted over the 4 subsequent days to measure aerobic performance (CV), comprising maximal efforts over distances of 100, 200, 400, and 800 m in a swimming pool. RBCs were obtained and extracted for analysis using the liquid chromatography—high resolution mass spectrometry untargeted approach. A total of 2146 ions were detected in the RBCs, of which 119 were identified. The enrichment pathway analysis indicated intermediary lipids in the glycerophospholipid, glycerolipid, sphingolipid, linoleic acid, and alpha-linolenic metabolisms, as well as pentose and glucuronate interconversions. A significant impact of the intermediary lipids was observed for the glycerophospholipid metabolism, including phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylcholine (PC), 1-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, sn-glycerol 3-phosphate, and phosphatidic acid. Inverse and significant associations were observed for PE 18:2/18:3 (r = −0.39; p = 0.015), PC 18:3/20:0 (r = −0.33; p = 0.041), and phosphatidic acid 18:0/0:0 (r = −0.47; p = 0.003) with aerobic performance. Swimmers who exhibited higher levels of aerobic performance also had the lowest abundance of PE, PC, and phosphatidic acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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13 pages, 416 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Eating Behavior Disorders and Disordered Eating Habits in Spanish High-Performance Women’s Olympic Wrestling Athletes

by Marina Rueda Flores, Adrián Martín-Castellanos, Olga López-Torres, Valentín E. Fernández-Elías, Jorge García-González and Daniel Mon-López

Nutrients 2024, 16(5), 709; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16050709 - 29 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1763

Abstract

Eating disorders (EDs) are a significant health issue in combat sports. This study investigated the differences between the different types of female wrestlers and the frequency at which EDs occur in the elite population, and it also sought to establish which factors are predictors of EDs. This study was comprised of 22 elite, female wrestlers who were selected based on the following inclusion criteria: having previously been the Spanish champion, being part of the Spanish national team, participating in at least one international championship, and having a history of ED. Data collection involved five questionnaires: demographic data, the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26), the Bulimic Investigatory Test, the Edinburgh (BITE), the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI-3), and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21). The results revealed diverse levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, with BITE scores indicating abnormal eating patterns. Group comparisons exposed significant distinctions in eating behaviors based on competition and training experience. Regression analyses showed competition and training experience as predictors of bulimia severity and symptoms. The study revealed prevalent extreme weight-control practices, including fasting, diuretic and laxative use, and binge eating. This research emphasizes the importance of EDs in Olympic wrestling, urging a comprehensive approach involving education, support, and policy implementation by coaches, health professionals, and sports organizations to prioritize athletes’ well-being and discourage unhealthy weight-control practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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10 pages, 847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of 24-h Fasting on Exercise Performance and Metabolic Parameters in a Pilot Study of Female CrossFit Athletes

by Melike Nur Eroglu, Celia Rodríguez-Longobardo, Ana Ramírez-Adrados, Clara Colina-Coca, Silvia Burgos-Postigo, Olga López-Torres and Valentín E. Fernández-Elías

Nutrients 2023, 15(22), 4841; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224841 - 20 Nov 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5005

Abstract

Many studies have tested intermittent fasting (IF) in athletes, but its effects on female CrossFit athletes remain relatively unexplored in the existing literature. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the effects of 24-h IF on the physical performance of female CrossFit practitioners. Eleven female CrossFit athletes (age: 30.91 ± 3.42, weight: 65.26 ± 7.55 kg, height: 1.66 ± 0.05 m) participated in the study. The study used a crossover design with fasting and eating conditions. Participants completed an exercise test, standing long jump, and handgrip strength assessment. Hydration status, heart rate, blood lactate, blood glucose, rates of perceived exertion, and hunger were measured. Results showed significant differences in blood lactate concentration (F = 5.435, p = 0.042, η2p = 0.352). Resting blood lactate concentration was significantly lower in the fasting trial than in the eating trial (p < 0.001), but post-exercise blood lactate concentrations were higher in the fasting trial than in the eating trial (p < 0.001). No differences were found in performance times (p > 0.05). In conclusion, this pilot study of females suggests that 24-h fasting does not impair exercise performance or negatively affect physiological parameters in CrossFit athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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11 pages, 308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are Supplements Consumed by Middle-Distance Runners Evidence-Based? A Comparative Study between Level of Competition and Sex

by Asier Del Arco, Aitor Martinez Aguirre-Betolaza, Ewa Malchrowicz-Mośko, Anna Gogojewicz and Arkaitz Castañeda-Babarro

Nutrients 2023, 15(22), 4839; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15224839 - 20 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2361

Abstract

Background: Middle-distance running events have special physiological requirements from a training and competition point of view. Therefore, many athletes choose to take sport supplements (SS) for different reasons. To date, few studies have been carried out that review supplementation patterns in middle-distance running. The aim of the present study is to analyze the consumption of SS in these runners with respect to their level of competition, sex and level of scientific evidence. Methods: In this descriptive cross-sectional study, data was collected from 106 middle-distance runners using a validated questionnaire. Results: Of the total sample, 85.85% responded that they consumed SS; no statistical difference was found regarding the level of competition or sex of the athletes. With respect to the level of competition, differences were observed in the total consumption of SS (p = 0.012), as well as in that of medical supplements (p = 0.005). Differences were observed between sexes in the consumption of medical supplements (p = 0.002) and group C supplements (p = 0.029). Conclusions: Higher-level athletes consume SS that have greater scientific evidence. On the other hand, although the most commonly consumed SS have evidence for the performance or health of middle-distance runners, runners should improve both their sources of information and their places of purchase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

14 pages, 897 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Habits of Elite Soccer Players: Variations According to Competitive Level, Playing Position and Sex

by Jaime Sebastiá-Rico, Jose M. Soriano, Jesús Sanchis-Chordà, Miguel Alonso-Calvar, Pedro López-Mateu, David Romero-García and José Miguel Martínez-Sanz

Nutrients 2023, 15(20), 4323; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15204323 - 10 Oct 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3566

Abstract

Soccer is a sport practiced worldwide by both men and women, where nutrition plays a fundamental role in the performance of soccer players, providing them with the nutrients necessary for energy, muscle recovery and injury prevention. The aim of this study is to describe the dietary habits in elite soccer players and their association with their competitive level, playing position and sex. A descriptive and non-experimental comparative study was conducted during the 2021–2022 competitive season. A total of 105 players belonging to a Spanish elite soccer team completed a food frequency questionnaire (FCFQ). It was observed that male players presented a higher consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods (p < 0.05), fermented foods (p = 0.014), frozen foods (p = 0.049) and red meat (p = 0.012) compared to female players, with the exception of lean meats, which were higher in females (p = 0.012). Furthermore, the U16-15 categories stand out for consuming carbohydrate-rich foods such as pasta (p = 0.000), bread (p = 0.004) and sweets (p = 0.046), as well as frozen foods (p = 0.002). Finally, alcohol consumption is higher in the senior categories (42.9%), where men are more likely to drink mixed drinks (6.2%), and beer and wine by women (10.7%). Practically no differences were found between the playing positions. In conclusion, differences were found in FCFQ according to competitive level and sex. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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Review

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22 pages, 886 KiB

Open AccessReview

Female Athlete Triad and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): Nutritional Management

by Monika Grabia, Jakub Perkowski, Katarzyna Socha and Renata Markiewicz-Żukowska

Nutrients 2024, 16(3), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16030359 - 25 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5470

Abstract

The female athlete triad (TRIAD) is a spectrum of disorders involving low energy availability (LEA), low bone mineral density, and menstrual disorders. It is increasingly common to use the term ‘relative energy deficiency in sport’ (RED), emphasising the extensive impact of LEA on the body. The aim of this narrative review was to gather original research encompassing female athletes across various sports as well as to collect findings on the potential of a nutrition-focused approach to prevent or treat the aforementioned disorders. A comprehensive search was conducted in PubMed and Scopus. Several challenges were identified regarding the adequacy of the energy availability, protein, and carbohydrate requirements in the diets of female athletes. Moreover, insufficient intake of vitamin D has been observed across all athlete groups studied. This insufficiency also extends to the average requirement for Ca, Mg, the Ca/P ratio, Zn, and Fe. To address those concerns, a nutritional approach is proposed in the latter part of this review. The factors that can improve the absorption of micronutrients have also been discussed. The TRIAD/REDs affect an ever-growing number of women and require appropriate therapeutic management, particularly through nutritional care. Therefore, cooperation within an interdisciplinary team comprising a physician, nutritionist, physiotherapist, and psychologist is crucial. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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Other

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17 pages, 4062 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training on Muscle Strength Gains in Adults <50 Years of Age: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Ziyu Wang, Bopeng Qiu, Ruoling Li, Yunzhi Han, Carl Petersen, Shuting Liu, Yinkai Zhang, Chang Liu, Darren G. Candow and Juan Del Coso

Nutrients 2024, 16(21), 3665; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16213665 - 28 Oct 2024

Viewed by 7837

Abstract

Background: Numerous meta-analyses have assessed the efficacy of creatine supplementation in increasing muscle strength. However, most have not considered the effect of the participants’ age, training duration, or other confounding variables on strength outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to consider the effect of these variables on the potential efficacy of creatine supplementation and resistance training for improving measures of muscle strength. Methods: Four databases were searched (MEDLINE, Scopus, Embase, and SPORTDiscus) with a search end date of 22 May 2024. Twenty-three studies were included, with 20 studies involving males (447 male participants), 2 studies involving females (40 female participants), and 1 study involving both males and females (13 male participants and 9 female participants). Results: In comparison with a placebo, creatine supplementation combined with resistance training significantly increased upper-body (WMD = 4.43 kg, p < 0.001) and lower-body strength (WMD = 11.35 kg, p < 0.001). Subgroup analyses showed a trend for greater upper-body strength improvements for males on creatine compared with females on creatine (p = 0.067, Q = 3.366). Additionally, males who consumed creatine combined with resistance training significantly increased both upper- and lower-body strength, whereas females showed no significant gains. There was a trend indicating greater lower-body strength gains from high-dose creatine compared with lower doses (p = 0.068, Q = 3.341). No other variables influenced the effect of creatine supplementation. In conclusions, creatine supplementation with resistance training enhances upper- and lower-body muscle strength in adults aged < 50, with greater benefits likely to be seen in males than females. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Training and Nutrition for Performance: Males, Females, and Gender Differences)

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