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Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome

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A special issue of Nutrients (ISSN 2072-6643). This special issue belongs to the section "Nutrition and Metabolism".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2020) | Viewed by 67007

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Prof. Dr. Stanislaw Gluszek

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Department of Surgical Medicine with the Laboratory of Medical Genetics, Collegium Medicum, Jan Kochanowski University, 25-369 Kielce, Poland
Interests: metabolic and bariatric; general surgery, including the problem of acute pancreatitis; oncologic surgery, including surgery of the large intestine, stomach, pancreas, and liver; surgical pathology of the gastrointestinal system; endocrine surgery (thyroid gland and adrenal glands); scope of problems concerning enteral and parenteral nutrition; laparoscopic surgery; metabolic syndrome

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is defined as the co-occurrence of metabolic risk factors: abdominal obesity, glucose metabolism disorders, dyslipidemia, and increased blood pressure. Its prevalence is increasing worldwide, which is mainly associated with a sedentary lifestyle and increasing obesity. The main health consequences of MetS include type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and some cancers. As a result, metabolic syndrome is now a significant public health and clinical problem and is treated by many authors as an epidemic of the 21st century. Scientists and clinicians are constantly looking for causes, effective methods of prevention and treatment of MetS, and thus, a chance to improve the length and quality of life of many patients around the world.

This Special Issue, entitled “Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome”, aims to highlight current scientific knowledge in the field of etiopathogenesis as well as behavioral therapy of the metabolic syndrome and its components. We would like the submitted manuscripts to refer primarily to the broadly understood role of food, nutrition and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of the syndrome and its components, i.e., energy balance, nutritional status, nutrients, food groups, dietary patterns, dietary and nutritional recommendations, and nutritional needs during different stages of life.

This Issue welcomes the submission of manuscripts either describing original research or reviewing the scientific literature, including meta-analyses and systematic reviews.

Prof. Dr. Stanislaw Gluszek
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Metabolic syndrome
Abdominal obesity
Dyslipidemia
Hyperglycemia
Nutritional status
Lifestyle
Diet
Dietary patterns
Nutrients
Physical activity
Energy expenditure

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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14 pages, 296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Association between Dietary Patterns and Kidney Function Parameters in Adults with Metabolic Syndrome: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Ahmad Syauqy, Chien-Yeh Hsu, Hsiu-An Lee, Hsiao-Hsien Rau and Jane C.-J. Chao

Nutrients 2021, 13(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010040 - 24 Dec 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3099

Abstract

This study explored the association between dietary patterns and kidney function parameters in adults with metabolic syndrome in Taiwan. This cross-sectional study was undertaken in 56,476 adults from the health screening centers in Taiwan from 2001 to 2010. Dietary intake and dietary patterns were assessed using a food frequency questionnaire and principal component analysis, respectively. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), and uric acid were measured as clinical parameters of kidney function. Multivariate linear regression was conducted to explore the relationship between dietary patterns and kidney function parameters. After adjusting for confounders, the highest tertiles of the processed food–sweets dietary pattern and the meat–seafood–eggs dietary pattern were associated with increased BUN, creatinine, and uric acid but decreased eGFR (all adjusted p < 0.05). Meanwhile, the highest tertiles of the veggie–fruit–grains dietary pattern and the milk–dairy dietary pattern were associated with decreased BUN, creatinine, and uric acid but increased eGFR (all adjusted p < 0.05). A processed food–sweets dietary pattern or a meat–seafood–eggs dietary pattern is associated with worse kidney function parameters in adults with metabolic syndrome. In contrast, a veggie–fruit–grains dietary pattern or a milk–dairy dietary pattern is associated with better kidney function parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

13 pages, 1043 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Appetite Control Might not Be Improved after Weight Loss in Adolescents with Obesity, Despite Non-Persistent Metabolic Syndrome

by Valérie Julian, Laurie Isacco, Marwa Khammassi, Alicia Fillon, Maud Miguet, Frederic Dutheil, Daniel Courteix, Marek Zak, Jacek Bicki, Stanisław Głuszek, Martine Duclos, Yves Boirie, Bruno Pereira and David Thivel

Nutrients 2020, 12(12), 3885; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123885 - 18 Dec 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3226

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a multidisciplinary weight loss intervention on energy intake and appetite sensations in adolescents with obesity, depending on the initial diagnosis or persistence of the metabolic syndrome. Ninety-two adolescents with obesity (12–15 years) followed a 16-week multidisciplinary weight loss intervention. Anthropometric and body composition characteristics, metabolic profile, ad libitum daily energy intake, and appetite sensations were assessed before and after the intervention. The presence of metabolic syndrome (MS) was determined at baseline (MS vs. non-MS) and after the program (persistent vs. non-persistent). While the intervention was effective in inducing weight loss (body weight T0: 87.1 ± 14.9 vs. T1: 81.2 ± 13.0 kg; p < 0.001) and body composition improvements in both adolescents with and without MS, energy intake (p = 0.07), hunger (p = 0.008), and prospective food consumption (p = 0.03) increased, while fullness decreased (p = 0.04) in both groups. Energy intake and appetite were not improved in non-persistent MS after the program and remained significantly higher among non-persistent adolescents compared with initially non-MS adolescents. To conclude, appetite control seems impaired in obese adolescents, irrespective of being affected by MS or not, whereas the treatment of MS in this population might fail to effectively preclude the adolescents from potential post-intervention compensatory food intake and subsequent weight regain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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13 pages, 3353 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of Hypertriglyceridemia by Roasted Nelumbinis folium in High Fat/High Cholesterol Diet Rat Model

by Hye Yoom Kim, Mi Hyeon Hong, Kwan Woo Kim, Jung Joo Yoon, Jung Eun Lee, Dae Gill Kang and Ho Sub Lee

Nutrients 2020, 12(12), 3859; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123859 - 17 Dec 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3689

Abstract

Hypertriglyceridemia is a condition characterized by high triglyceride levels and is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases. The present study was designed to investigate the inhibitory effect of roasted Nelumbinis folium (RN), which is a medicinal substance produced by heating lotus leaves, on lipid metabolism in high fat/cholesterol (HFC) diet-induced hypertriglyceridemia. Except for those in the control group, Sprague–Dawley rats were fed an HFC diet for four weeks to induce hypertriglyceridemia. During the next nine weeks, the control, regular diet; HFC, HFC diet, FLU, fluvastatin (3 mg/kg/day); RNL, RN (100 mg/kg/day); RNH, RN (200 mg/kg/day) were orally administered together with the diet, and the experiments were conducted for a total of 13 weeks. The weight of the epididymal adipose tissue, liver, and heart of rats in the HFC diet group significantly increased compared to those in the control group but improved in the RN-treated group. It was also confirmed that vascular function, which is damaged by an HFC diet, was improved after RN treatment. The levels of insulin, glucose, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein increased in the HFC diet group compared to those in the control group, while the administration of RN attenuated these parameters. In addition, the administration of RN significantly reduced the gene expression of both LXR and SREBP-1, which indicated the inhibitory effect of the biosynthesis of triglycerides caused by RN. The results indicated that RN administration resulted in an improvement in the overall lipid metabolism and a decrease in the concentration of triglycerides in the HFC diet-induced rat model of hypertriglyceridemia. Therefore, our findings suggest that the RN can be a candidate material to provide a new direction for treating hypertriglyceridemia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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10 pages, 933 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Overeating Dietary Protein at Different Levels on Circulating Lipids and Liver Lipid: The PROOF Study

by George A. Bray, Leanne M. Redman, Jennifer Rood, Lilian de Jonge and Steven R. Smith

Nutrients 2020, 12(12), 3801; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123801 - 11 Dec 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3974

Abstract

Background: During overeating, a low protein diet slowed the rate of weight gain and increased the energy cost of the added weight, suggesting that low protein diets reduced energy efficiency. The Protein Overfeeding (PROOF) study explored the metabolic changes to low and high protein diets, and this sub-study examined the changes in body composition and blood lipids when eating high and low protein diets during overeating. Methods: Twenty-three healthy volunteers (M = 14; F = 9) participated in an 8-week, parallel arm study where they were overfed by ~40% with diets containing 5% (LPD = low protein diet), 15% (NPD = normal protein diet), or 25% (HPD = high protein diet) protein. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and computer tomography (CT) were used to quantify whole body and abdominal fat and intrahepatic lipid, respectively. Metabolites were measured by standard methods. Results: Protein intake and fat intake were inversely related since carbohydrate intake was fixed. Although overeating the LPD diet was associated with a significant increase in high density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol (p < 0.001) and free fatty acids (p = 0.034), and a significant decrease in fat free mass (p < 0.0001) and liver density (p = 0.038), statistical models showed that dietary protein was the main contributor to changes in fat free mass (p = 0.0040), whereas dietary fat was the major predictor of changes in HDL-cholesterol (p = 0.014), free fatty acids (p = 0.0016), and liver fat (p = 0.0007). Conclusions: During 8 weeks of overeating, the level of dietary protein intake was positively related to the change in fat free mass, but not to the change in HDL-cholesterol, free fatty acids, and liver fat which were, in contrast, related to the intake of dietary fat. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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18 pages, 4965 KiB

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Anti-Obesity and Antidiabetic Effects of Nelumbinis Semen Powder in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese C57BL/6 Mice

by Su Bin Hwang and Bog-Hieu Lee

Nutrients 2020, 12(11), 3576; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113576 - 22 Nov 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4971

Abstract

Nelumbinis Semen (NS, the seeds of Nelumbo nucifera) extract is a traditional Korean medicine with anti-oxidant activity. The present study examined the anti-obesity and antidiabetic effects of NS powder in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese C57BL/6 mice. Mice (n = 8/group) were fed a normal diet (CON), HFD, HFD containing 5% NS powder (HFD-NS5%), or HFD containing 10% NS powder (HFD-NS10%) for 12 weeks. Food intake was relatively higher in groups HFD-NS5% and HFD-NS10%, while the food efficiency ratio was highest in group HFD (p < 0.05). HFD-NS5% reduced the body weight (−39.1%) and fat weight (−26.6%), including epididymal fat and perirenal fat, and lowered the serum triglyceride levels (−20.6%) compared with HFD. Groups HFD-NS5% and HFD-NS10% showed hepatoprotective properties, reducing the serum ALT levels (p < 0.05) and fat globules (size and number) in the liver compared with group HFD. HFD-NS5% and HFD-NS10% regulated the blood glucose, improved the glucose intolerance, and showed a 12.5% and 15.0% reduction in the area under the curve (AUC) of intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT), and a 26.8% and 47.3% improvement in homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), respectively, compared with HFD (p < 0.05). Regarding the expressions of genes related to anti-obesity and antidiabetes, there was a 1.7- and 1.3-fold increase in PPAR-α protein expression, 1.4- and 1.6-fold increase in PPAR-γ protein expression, and 0.7- and 0.6-fold decrease in TNF-α protein expression, respectively, following HFD-NS5% and HFD-NS10% treatments, compared with HFD, and GLUT4 protein expression increased relative to CON (p < 0.05). These results comprehensively provide the fundamental data for NS powder’s functional and health-promoting benefits associated with anti-obesity and antidiabetes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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12 pages, 2074 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Abeliophyllum distichum Ameliorates High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity in C57BL/6J Mice by Upregulating the AMPK Pathway

by Ji Eom, Shalom Sara Thomas, Nak-Yun Sung, Dong-Sub Kim, Youn-Soo Cha and Kyung-Ah Kim

Nutrients 2020, 12(11), 3320; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12113320 - 29 Oct 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3721

Abstract

The use of natural compounds as anti-obesity agents has been gaining attention over the past few years. Abeliophyllum distichum Nakai is endemic to Korea. In the present study, an A. distichum leaf extract (AE) was analyzed for its anti-obesity effects in mice fed a high-fat diet. Seven-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were divided into five groups, namely, normal diet (ND), high-fat diet (HD), HD + Garcinia (GE300), HD + AE low dose (AE100), and HD + AE high dose (AE300). After 8 weeks of the experimental period, treatment with AE reduced body weight and ameliorated high-fat diet-induced changes in serum lipid levels. Histological analysis revealed that treatment with AE decreased lipid accumulation in the liver and brown adipose tissue. Also, AE reduced the adipocyte size in epididymal fat. The reduction in adipose tissue mass in the AE-treated groups was clearly visible in micro-computed tomography images. The expression levels of lipogenic genes, such as PPARγ, C/EBPα, ACC, and FAS, were significantly reduced in the AE300 group. The levels of p-AMPK and p-ACC were increased in the AE300 group compared to the HD group, indicating that the anti-obesity effect of AE was mediated through the AMPK pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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9 pages, 234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adherence to Daily Food Guides Is Associated with Lower Risk of Metabolic Syndrome: The Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan

by Ming-Chieh Li and Hsin-Yu Fang

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 2955; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102955 - 27 Sep 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3617

Abstract

Although nutritional health knowledge serves as the basis for the daily food guides, limited epidemiologic studies were conducted to verify whether adherence to the daily food guides reduced the prevalence of diseases. This study aims to examine whether adherence to the daily food guides relates to the lower risk of having metabolic syndrome, as well as to assess the association between levels of adherence to daily food guides and demographic characteristics. A cross-sectional study was conducted using data from the Nutrition and Health Survey in Taiwan (NAHSIT) 2013–2016. Face-to-face dietary assessments were conducted using a validated food-frequency questionnaire. Six food groups were defined according to the daily food guides in Taiwan. We constructed a daily food guide index to measure the levels of adherence to the daily food guides. Logistic regression was performed to assess the association between the levels of adherence to the daily food guides and the risk of having metabolic syndrome. A total of 2534 participants (51% of females) were included in the final analysis. After adjusting for age, sex, body mass index, education level, marital status, and family income, we found a negative correlation between the levels of adherence to daily food guides and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome. The odds ratios (ORs) for the highest versus lowest quartile of the adherence level was 0.65 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.48–0.88). In addition, males, younger age, lower education, divorced, separated, and widowed, and lower family income were associated with lower adherence to daily food guides. In conclusion, participants reporting better adherence to the daily food guides during the past month had a lower risk of having metabolic syndrome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

20 pages, 1382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Fibres and the Management of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome: The RESOLVE Study

by Angelo Tremblay, Maëlys Clinchamps, Bruno Pereira, Daniel Courteix, Bruno Lesourd, Robert Chapier, Philippe Obert, Agnes Vinet, Guillaume Walther, Elodie Chaplais, Reza Bagheri, Julien S. Baker, David Thivel, Vicky Drapeau and Frédéric Dutheil

Nutrients 2020, 12(10), 2911; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12102911 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7436

Abstract

Objectives: This study was performed to evaluate the long-term maintenance of nutritional changes promoted during an intensive initial intervention to induce body weight loss. The ability of these changes to predict long-term health outcomes was also examined. Methods: Nutritional variables, body composition, and metabolic markers collected in the RESOLVE project were analyzed before and after a 3-week intensive diet–exercise intervention (Phase 1), and during a subsequent supervision under free living conditions, of 12 months (Phase 2). Results: As expected, the macronutrient composition of the diet was modified to promote a negative energy balance during Phase 1. The decrease in carbohydrates imposed during this phase was maintained during Phase 2 whereas the increase in protein intake returned to baseline values at the end of the program. Dietary fiber intake was almost doubled during Phase 1 and remained significantly greater than baseline values throughout Phase 2. Moreover, fiber intake was the only nutritional variable that systematically and significantly predicted variations of health outcomes in the study. Conclusion: The adequacy of dietary fiber intake should be a matter of primary consideration in diet-based weight reduction programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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15 pages, 262 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Breastfeeding and Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome among Perimenopausal Women

by Edyta Suliga, Elzbieta Ciesla, Martyna Gluszek-Osuch, Malgorzata Lysek-Gladysinska, Iwona Wawrzycka and Stanislaw Gluszek

Nutrients 2020, 12(9), 2691; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092691 - 3 Sep 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3170

Abstract

Little is known about the long-term benefits of breastfeeding for mother’s metabolic health. This study aimed to investigate the links between breastfeeding duration and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its components in perimenopausal women. The analysis included a group of 7621 women aged 55.4 ± 5.4 years. MetS and its components were defined according to the International Diabetes Federation guidelines. Women who breastfed for 13–18 months and beyond 18 months were at lower risk of MetS (odds ratio OR) = 0.76, 95% CI 0.60–0.95; p = 0.017 and OR = 0.79, 95% CI 0.64–0.98; p = 0.030, respectively) than those who never breastfed. Meanwhile, women who breastfed for 7–12 months showed increased glucose concentration (OR = 0.77, 95% CI 0.63–0.94; p = 0.012) compared with those who had never breastfed. The additional analysis involving parity showed that women who had given birth to two babies and breastfed them had lower odds of MetS than those who never breastfed (p < 0.05), although there was no significant difference among women who breastfed for >18 months. Women who had given birth to at least three children and breastfed for 1–6 and 13–18 months had lower odds of MetS and increased triglyceride concentration (p < 0.05). Moreover, participants having breastfed for 1–6 months were found to have a reduced risk of abdominal obesity compared with those who had not breastfed (p < 0.05). Breastfeeding is associated with lower prevalence of MetS in perimenopausal women and can be recommended as a way of reducing the risk of MetS and its components. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

12 pages, 914 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) Seeds Dietary Supplementation Regulates Liver Antioxidant Defense Systems in Aging Mice

by Devesh Tewari, Artur Jóźwik, Małgorzata Łysek-Gładysińska, Weronika Grzybek, Wioletta Adamus-Białek, Jacek Bicki, Nina Strzałkowska, Agnieszka Kamińska, Olaf K. Horbańczuk and Atanas G. Atanasov

Nutrients 2020, 12(9), 2552; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092552 - 24 Aug 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 8581

Abstract

Fenugreek seeds are widely used in Asia and other places of the world for their nutritive and medicinal properties. In Asia, fenugreek seeds are also recommended for geriatric populations. Here, we evaluated for the first time the effect of fenugreek seed feed supplementation on the liver antioxidant defense systems in aging mice. The study was conducted on 12-months aged mice which were given fenugreek seed dietary supplement. We evaluated the activities of various antioxidant defense enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and also estimated the phenolics and free radical scavenging properties in mice liver upon fenugreek supplementation. The estimation of SOD, GPx, and GR activities in aged mice liver revealed a significant (p < 0.01) difference among all the liver enzymes. Overall, this study reveals that fenugreek seed dietary supplementation has a positive effect on the activities of the hepatic antioxidant defense enzymes in the aged mice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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11 pages, 1134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Red Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Seed Extract Improves Glycemic Control by Inhibiting Hepatic Gluconeogenesis via Phosphorylation of FOXO1 and AMPK in Obese Diabetic db/db Mice

by Hyun Kyung Kim, Jeongho Jeong, Eun Young Kang and Gwang-woong Go

Nutrients 2020, 12(9), 2546; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12092546 - 23 Aug 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4952

Abstract

Obesity is a notable risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes, augmenting the concern of obese diabetes (ObD). Anti-obesity and antioxidant effects of red pepper seeds extract (RPSE) have increased our expectations that RPSE would also improve the pathological phenotypes of obese diabetes. Therefore, we hypothesized that RPSE would have an anti-diabetic effect in ObD mice. Animals were assigned either as follows: (1) db/+, (2) db/db control, (3) RPSE (200 mg/kg bw), or (4) a comparative control (metformin 150 mg/kg bw). RPSE was orally administered daily for 8 weeks. As a result, RPSE supplementation improved diabetic phenotypes, including fasting glucose, hemoglobin (HbA1c), and insulin levels. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6), and triglycerides were reduced in RPSE-treated mice. RPSE supplementation also diminished the rate-limiting enzymes of gluconeogenesis, including glucose 6-phosphatas (G6Pase) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), in the liver. RPSE supplementation increased the phosphorylation of forkhead box protein O1 (FOXO1) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), which underlined the mechanism of the anti-diabetic effects of RPSE. Taken together, RPSE has the potential to improve glycemic control by repressing hepatic gluconeogenesis via the phosphorylation of FOXO1 and AMPK in ObD mice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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24 pages, 829 KiB

Open AccessReview

Time-Restricted Eating and Metabolic Syndrome: Current Status and Future Perspectives

by Iwona Świątkiewicz, Alina Woźniak and Pam R. Taub

Nutrients 2021, 13(1), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010221 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 15548

Abstract

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) occurs in ~30% of adults and is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus. MetS reflects the clustering of individual cardiometabolic risk factors including central obesity, elevated fasting plasma glucose, dyslipidemia, and elevated blood pressure. Erratic eating patterns such as eating over a prolonged period per day and irregular meal timing are common in patients with MetS. Misalignment between daily rhythms of food intake and circadian timing system can contribute to circadian rhythm disruption which results in abnormal metabolic regulation and adversely impacts cardiometabolic health. Novel approaches which aim at restoring robust circadian rhythms through modification of timing and duration of daily eating represent a promising strategy for patients with MetS. Restricting eating period during a day (time-restricted eating, TRE) can aid in mitigating circadian disruption and improving cardiometabolic outcomes. Previous pilot TRE study of patients with MetS showed the feasibility of TRE and improvements in body weight and fat, abdominal obesity, atherogenic lipids, and blood pressure, which were observed despite no overt attempt to change diet quantity and quality or physical activity. The present article aims at giving an overview of TRE human studies of individuals with MetS or its components, summarizing current clinical evidence for improving cardiometabolic health through TRE intervention in these populations, and presenting future perspectives for an implementation of TRE to treat and prevent MetS. Previous TRE trials laid the groundwork and indicate a need for further clinical research including large-scale controlled trials to determine TRE efficacy for reducing long-term cardiometabolic risk, providing tools for sustained lifestyle changes and, ultimately, improving overall health in individuals with MetS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutrition and Diet in Metabolic Syndrome)

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