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Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants

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A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Emerging Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2022) | Viewed by 23444

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Dr. Magdalena Zalewska

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Guest Editor

Department of Bacterial Physiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: small ruminants; bacterial resistance; molecular determinants of bacterial resistance in environmental bacteria; udder health; ruminants immune response; cytokines; acute phase proteins; environmental microbiology; antimicrobials; One Health approach

Dr. Emilia Bagnicka

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Guest Editor

Institute of Genetics and Animal Biotechnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Postepu 36A, Jastrzebiec, 05-552 Magdalenka, Poland
Interests: ruminants; bacterial resistance; genetic background of mastitis; small ruminant lentivirus infection; molecular genetics; genomics; epigenomics
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Domestic small ruminant infectious diseases strongly affect livestock and their products, causing economic losses due to the international trade restrictions. Effective control of diseases is crucial for the agricultural safety and biosafety of animal source foods. Zoonoses that are transmissible either directly or indirectly from animals to humans pose an additional threat to human health and recently have been perceived as one of the biggest risk factors. Infectious diseases may be common worldwide or limited to specific geographic regions—endemic. Some of them are caused by newly found pathogens, while others are considered as re-emerging. Moreover, the prevalence of drug-resistant microorganisms related to livestock production systems is steadily increasing. Our changing environment may additionally affect the transmission rate or routes of endemic diseases, extending the geographical borders where they may occur.

This Special Issue aims to provide the opportunity to publish original research or review articles addressing emerging infections of small ruminants. Within this Issue, we intend to analyze our understanding of the epidemiology of small ruminant infectious diseases (e.g., the etiological factors, geographical spread, animal reservoirs, transmission routes, the effect on animal products). Studies contributing to better understanding the origin of diseases, detailed mechanisms of the host immune response, new diagnostic tools, treatment methods, or prevention strategies are also welcome.

We sincerely invite you to participate in this topic or related research topics to learn more about relevant small ruminant infectious diseases.

Dr. Magdalena Zalewska
Dr. Emilia Bagnicka
Guest Editors

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Keywords

small ruminants
infectious disease
ruminants
livestock
zoonosis
immunology
genetic background of immune response
antimicrobials
diagnosis
transmission
epidemiology
drug resistance
host–pathogen molecular interactions

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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12 pages, 287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Evidence of the Presence of the Causative Agent of Caseous Lymphadenitis—Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in Dairy Products Produced from the Milk of Small Ruminants

by Denisa Langova, Iva Slana, Jana Okunkova, Monika Moravkova, Martina Florianova and Jirina Markova

Pathogens 2022, 11(12), 1425; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11121425 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1792

Abstract

This study focused on the detection and quantification of selected bacteria and on the presence of enterotoxin genes in milk and dairy products from sheep and goat farms in the Czech Republic using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) and multiplex PCR (PCR). The presence of Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (CP), Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, S. aureus enterotoxin genes and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was determined in 18 milk samples, 28 fresh cheeses, 20 ripened cheeses and 14 yoghurts. The serological status of the herds in relation to CP and MAP was taken into account. The most frequently detected bacterium was S. aureus (48.8%), and subsequent PCR revealed 11 MRSA positive samples. The S. aureus enterotoxin genes seg, sei and sec were detected in two goat cheeses. Cheese samples showed a statistically higher risk of SA and MRSA occurrence. CP (8.8%) and MAP (13.8%) were detected by qPCR on two different seropositive farms. Cultivation of qPCR positive CP samples on agar plates supplemented with potassium tellurite showed the presence of viable bacterium. The results obtained confirmed the necessity of monitoring the infectious status of dairy animals and rapid diagnosis of bacterial pathogens in milk and dairy products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

17 pages, 3493 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Anaplasma ovis Prevalence Assessment and Cross Validation Using Multiparametric Screening Approach in Sheep from Central Tunisia

by Sihem ElHamdi, Moez Mhadhbi, Mourad Ben Said, Amine Mosbah, Mohamed Gharbi, Imen Klabi, Monia Daaloul-Jedidi, Hanène Belkahia, Rachid Selmi, Mohamed Aziz Darghouth and Lilia Messadi

Pathogens 2022, 11(11), 1358; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11111358 - 15 Nov 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2222

Abstract

We conducted a 5-month-long screening of Anaplasma spp. and Anaplasma ovis infection in sheep from central Tunisia. During this longitudinal study, we investigated the infection dynamics using both direct and indirect assessments validated with a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as the gold standard method. The experimental design included 84 male lambs aged from 6 to 8 months, and 32 ewes, both chosen randomly from June to November with a periodicity of 2 weeks approximately between June and September, and 1 month between September and November. A total of 9 field visits were carried out in this period during which animals were clinically examined and biological samples were extracted. Thus, a total of 716 blood smears, 698 sera from the nine sampling dates, as well as 220 blood samples from the first and the ninth sampling dates were collected from apparently healthy lambs and ewes, respectively, and analyzed by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay, for the detection of Anaplasma antibodies and A. ovis DNA, respectively. Sera were analyzed by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) and PCR, for the detection of Anaplasma antibodies and A. ovis DNA, respectively. The Anaplasma spp. initial seroprevalence rate was 33.3% in lambs and 100% in ewes, and it then flowed in an upward trend to reach a maximum of 52.6% in lambs, whereas in ewes, the Anaplasma spp. seroprevalence rate remained unchanged and equal to 100%. Meanwhile, the A. ovis initial molecular prevalence was 22.6% at the first visit and 26.3% at the last visit in lambs, whereas in ewes, the molecular prevalence rates of A. ovis were higher in both the first and the last visit estimated at 100% and 85.7%, respectively. The Kappa coefficient between cELISA and PCR indicated a moderate level of agreement on the first sampling date (0.67) and a low agreement level on the last (0.43). Furthermore, an exploratory data analysis using a multimodal machine learning approach highlighted the underlying pattern of each analytical technique used in this study. In this prospect, we were able to establish the performance of each technique at detecting Anaplasma spp. in sheep. The combination of these approaches should improve the field assessment while promoting a data-based decision in precision epidemiology. The genetic follow-up test relevant to A. ovis msp4 sequences revealed three different genotypes, two of which were previously described in Italy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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11 pages, 1352 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Serum Resistance of Mycoplasma agalactiae Strains and Mutants Bearing Different Lipoprotein Profiles

by Katja Sommer, Saskia Kowald and Rohini Chopra-Dewasthaly

Pathogens 2022, 11(9), 1036; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11091036 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1597

Abstract

In order to spread systemically, resistance against complement and other factors present in serum is an important trait in pathogenic bacteria. The variable proteins of Mycoplasma agalactiae (Vpmas) have been shown to affect differential adhesion, invasion and immune evasion, and undergo high-frequency phase-variation in expression. However, nothing is known about their involvement in M. agalactiae’s serum susceptibility. To evaluate this, the PG2 strain, the GM139 strain and the six Vpma phase-locked mutants (PLMs, PLMU to PLMZ) were tested for their ability to survive in the presence of non-sensitized and sensitized sheep serum, as well as guinea pig complement. Additionally, the reactivity of the sensitized sheep serum was analysed on the strains via western blotting. Overall data demonstrate PG2 strain to be more susceptible to sheep serum compared to the GM139 strain bearing a different Vpma profile. Significant differences were also observed between the different PLMs, with PLMU and PLMX showing the highest serum susceptibility in serum, while the other PLMs expressing longer Vpma proteins were more resistant. The results are in good correlation with previous studies where shorter lipoprotein variants contributed to a higher susceptibility to complement. Since none of the tested strains and PLMs were susceptible to non-sensitized sheep serum, antibodies seem to play an important role in serum killing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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11 pages, 1195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sero-Epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii Infection in Small Ruminants in the Eastern Region of Punjab, Pakistan

by Freeha Amin, Shahzad Ali, Arshad Javid, Muhammad Imran, Muhammad Imran Rashid, Katja Mertens-Scholz and Heinrich Neubauer

Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 664; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060664 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2337

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the seroprevalence of Q fever in sheep and goats in Kasur, Okara, and Pakpattan in the Punjab of Pakistan. Q fever is a widely reported zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella (C.) burnetii. The main reservoirs are small ruminants that excrete the bacteria in birth by-products in high numbers. Thus, the bacteria can also be detected in the air and the dust of livestock farms. The infection is often asymptomatic in ruminants, but it can lead to reproductive disorders. This cross-sectional study found that a significant number (n = 43; 11.3%) of 300 randomly selected small ruminants of nine tehsils were seropositive using a commercially available ELISA. Seroprevalence was significantly higher in goats (17.1%) than in sheep (4.9%). Binary logistic regression analysis proved that species, age, and breed have a significant effect on the prevalence of Q fever. Tick infestation, contact with animal fomites, contact with other animals, production system, and health status of an animal had a significant impact on the prevalence of Q fever. These findings on Q fever in animals can be used to improve the visibility of this zoonotic disease. These findings will help local health authorities to focus on the origin of the problem and facilitate applying preventive measures to the affected livestock farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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18 pages, 2935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring and Surveillance of Small Ruminant Health in The Netherlands

by Eveline Dijkstra, Piet Vellema, Karianne Peterson, Carlijn ter Bogt-Kappert, Reinie Dijkman, Liesbeth Harkema, Erik van Engelen, Marian Aalberts, Inge Santman-Berends and René van den Brom

Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060635 - 31 May 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2740

Abstract

In contemporary society and modern livestock farming, a monitoring and surveillance system for animal health has become indispensable. In addition to obligations arising from European regulations regarding monitoring and surveillance of animal diseases, The Netherlands developed a voluntary system for the monitoring and surveillance of small ruminant health. This system aims for (1) early detection of outbreaks of designated animal diseases, (2) early detection of yet unknown disease conditions, and (3) insight into trends and developments. To meet these objectives, a system is in place based on four main surveillance components, namely a consultancy helpdesk, diagnostic services, multiple networks, and an annual data analysis. This paper describes the current system and its ongoing development and gives an impression of nearly twenty years of performance by providing a general overview of key findings and three elaborated examples of notable disease outbreaks. Results indicate that the current system has added value to the detection of various (re)emerging and new diseases. Nevertheless, animal health monitoring and surveillance require a flexible approach that is able to keep pace with changes and developments within the industry. Therefore, monitoring and surveillance systems should be continuously adapted and improved using new techniques and insights. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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16 pages, 2938 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Prevalence of Histopathological Features of Pneumonia in Goats with Symptomatic Caprine Arthritis-Encephalitis

by Agata Moroz, Michał Czopowicz, Małgorzata Sobczak-Filipiak, Izabella Dolka, Magdalena Rzewuska, Magdalena Kizerwetter-Świda, Dorota Chrobak-Chmiel, Marcin Mickiewicz, Lucjan Witkowski, Olga Szaluś-Jordanow, Tomasz Nalbert, Adrian Valentin Potârniche, Karolina Barszcz, Iwona Markowska-Daniel, Ryszard Puchała, Emilia Bagnicka and Jarosław Kaba

Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060629 - 30 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3184

Abstract

Chronic interstitial pneumonia (CIP) is a main pathology of sheep infected with small ruminant lentivirus (SRLV). Caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) is caused by the same pathogen; however, the presence of CIP has been only occasionally reported in SRLV-infected goats. We carried out a cross-sectional study to determine the prevalence of histopathological lesions indicative of CIP in goats with symptomatic CAE, and to investigate whether CIP was associated with a higher prevalence of other types of pneumonia (purulent bronchopneumonia, fibrinous pleuropneumonia) or bacterial infections. Lung specimens and bronchial swabs were collected for histopathological and bacteriological examination, respectively, from 116 goats from a CAE-affected herd. All goats were euthanized due to severe clinical signs of CAE. The goats were seropositive for SRLV infection in two different ELISAs and the presence of SRLV antigen in the lung tissue was confirmed by immunohistochemistry. Histopathologically, pneumonia of any type was confirmed in 82 goats (70.7%) and CIP was present in 67 goats (57.8%). In most goats, the severity of the histopathological features of pneumonia was mild. Bacteria were detected in bronchial swabs from 73 goats (62.9%). CIP proved to be significantly positively linked to the occurrence of purulent bronchopneumonia (p < 0.001), fibrinous pleuropneumonia (p = 0.001), and of the infection of lungs with bacteria capable of causing pneumonia (p = 0.050). The causal character of these associations should be considered and warrants further investigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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17 pages, 4311 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Whole Genome Analysis of an Anaplasma phagocytophilum Strain Isolated from Norwegian Sheep

by Francy L. Crosby, Sveinung Eskeland, Erik G. Bø-Granquist, Ulrike G. Munderloh, Lisa D. Price, Basima Al-Khedery, Snorre Stuen and Anthony F. Barbet

Pathogens 2022, 11(5), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11050601 - 21 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3133

Abstract

Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a Gram-negative obligate intracellular tick-borne alphaproteobacteria (family Anaplasmatacea, order Rickettsiales) with a worldwide distribution. In Norway, tick borne fever (TBF), caused by A. phagocytophilum, presents a major challenge in sheep farming. Despite the abundance of its tick vector, Ixodes ricinus, and A. phagocytophilum infections in wild and domestic animals, reports of infections in humans are low compared with cases in the U.S. Although A. phagocytophilum is genetically diverse and complex infections (co-infection and superinfection) in ruminants and other animals are common, the underlying genetic basis of intra-species interactions and host-specificity remains unexplored. Here, we performed whole genome comparative analysis of a newly cultured Norwegian A. phagocytophilum isolate from sheep (ApSheep_NorV1) with 27 other A. phagocytophilum genome sequences derived from human and animal infections worldwide. Although the compared strains are syntenic, there is remarkable genetic diversity between different genomic loci including the pfam01617 superfamily that encodes the major, neutralization-sensitive, surface antigen Msp2/p44. Blast comparisons between the msp2/p44 pseudogene repertoires from all the strains showed high divergence between U. S. and European strains and even between two Norwegian strains. Based on these comparisons, we concluded that in ruminants, complex infections can be attributed to infection with strains that differ in their msp2/p44 repertoires, which has important implications for pathogen evolution and vaccine development. We also present evidence for integration of rickettsial DNA into the genome of ISE6 tick cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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9 pages, 278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Molecular Evidence for the Presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Naturally Infected Small Ruminants in Tunisia, and Confirmation of Anaplasma ovis Endemicity

by Youmna M’ghirbi, Beatriz Oporto, Ana Hurtado and Ali Bouattour

Pathogens 2022, 11(3), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11030315 - 3 Mar 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2330

Abstract

Anaplasma species are obligate intracellular rickettsial vector-borne pathogens that impose economic constraints on animal breeders and threaten human health. Anaplasma ovis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum infect sheep and goats worldwide. A duplex PCR targeting the msp2 and msp4 genes of A. phagocytophilum and A. ovis, respectively, was developed to analyze the field blood samples collected from sheep and goats. A total of 263 apparently healthy small ruminants from 16 randomly selected flocks situated in 3 bioclimatic zones in Tunisia were analyzed for Anaplasma infections. Anaplasma spp. was detected in 78.3% (95% confidence interval (CI): 72.8–83.1) of the analyzed animals. The prevalence of A. ovis in sheep (80.4%) and goats (70.3%) was higher than that of A. phagocytophilum (7.0% in sheep and 1.6% in goats). Using an inexpensive, specific, and rapid duplex PCR assay, we provide, to the best of our knowledge, the first molecular evidence for the presence of A. phagocytophilum in small ruminants in Tunisia. A. phagocytophilum generally presented as a co-infection with A. ovis. This study provides important data to understand the epidemiology of anaplasmosis in small ruminants, and highlights the risk of contracting the infection upon tick exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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14 pages, 5388 KiB

Open AccessCase Report

Mycobacterium bovis Tuberculosis in Two Goat Farms in Multi-Host Ecosystems in Sicily (Italy): Epidemiological, Diagnostic, and Regulatory Considerations

by Vincenzo Di Marco Lo Presti, Maria Teresa Capucchio, Michele Fiasconaro, Roberto Puleio, Francesco La Mancusa, Giovanna Romeo, Carmelinda Biondo, Dorotea Ippolito, Franco Guarda and Flavia Pruiti Ciarello

Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060649 - 4 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2729

Abstract

Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) is the causative agent of animal tuberculosis (bTB), infecting and causing disease in several animal species. In areas where there are complex interactions between reservoir hosts and susceptible species, the control of this pathogen is a challenge. The authors report two outbreaks of goat tuberculosis caused by M. bovis in multi-host ecosystems within two protected natural areas of Sicily, where TB is historically endemic. The first outbreak (Farm A) was identified after the incidental detection at the slaughterhouse of TB-like lesions in goat viscera ready to be disposed. Single intradermal cervical tuberculin test (SICT) was performed in Farm A on 205 goats, resulting positive in 10 (4.9%). After slaughtering, six out of ten animals showed TB-like lesions, from which M. bovis spoligotype SB0841 was isolated. The typing did not reveal any epidemiological connection with the neighboring cattle, suggesting that free-ranging type of management exposed the affected goat livestock or wildlife infected with other strains. The second outbreak (Farm B) was detected in a mixed farm (bovine, caprine, and ovine), where relapsing outbreaks of TB in cattle were registered in the previous years after performing the SICT in cohabiting goats. SICT resulted positive in 6/153 (3.9%), and two animals showed bTB-like lesions. No mycobacteria were cultured, and the final diagnosis of TB was achieved by histopathology and immunohistochemistry. The reported outbreaks highlight the importance of assessing the epidemiological, diagnostic, and regulatory critical issue, which is fundamental to optimizing the strategies of eradicating TB in the endemic multi-host ecosystem described. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Infections in Small Ruminants)

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