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Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses
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Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Viral Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 October 2021) | Viewed by 63794

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Virology, Croatian Institute of Public Health; School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: emerging arboviruses; viral encephalitis; hepatitis viruses; zoonoses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Vladimir Savic

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Poultry Center, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
Interests: flaviviruses; influenza viruses; zoonoses; avian viruses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the past decade, the incidence of emerging and re-emerging viral infectious diseases has increased and represents a significant threat to global health. The majority of emerging pathogens are zoonotic, especially those that are arthropod-borne. West Nile virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus are the two most widely distributed (re)-emerging neuroinvasive flaviviruses. Additionally, the zoonotic potential of Usutu virus has been reported in a growing number of human cases. Dengue, Zika, and chikungunya viruses are the significant cause of morbidity in the tropics; however, travel-related imported infections have also been reported in many non-endemic areas. Among the respiratory viruses, two novel coronaviruses, SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, are also of zoonotic origin. COVID-19 is an ongoing global pandemic caused by another novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2. Besides newly emerging viruses, variants of existing viruses, such as influenza virus, also cause serious epidemics. Another important group of zoonotic diseases are the rodent-borne, which include hantaviruses and arenaviruses. Hemorrhagic fever is one of the most severe clinical presentations of hantavirus and arenavirus infections, while hepatitis E virus is an emerging food-borne hepatotropic virus in developed countries.

Rabies is considered one of the most neglected zoonosis in developing countries. Some other neglected viruses include lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, sandfly fever viruses, and Toscana virus. While sandfly fever viruses cause mild febrile disease, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and Toscana virus can cause neuroinvasive disease, especially in immunocompromised persons. Many other emerging and neglected viruses include the genera Henipavirus, Orthobunyavirus, and Picornavirus and the families Nairoviridae, Filoviridae, Poxviridae, Paramyxoviridae, and Reoviridae.

The epidemiology of zoonotic viruses is continuously changing due to viruses spreading into new areas, vectors, and hosts. Since the number of (re)-emerging viruses and zoonotic pathogens is growing rapidly, knowledge regarding the epidemiology, diagnostics, and treatment of these pathogens needs to be continuously updated.

In this Special Issue, we would like to focus on all aspects of emerging and neglected viruses and zoonoses. Topics of interest include (but are not limited to) epidemiology, vector competence, disease pathogenesis, virus–host interactions, virulence factors, clinical aspects, immune response, and diagnostic methods. This issue will also highlight the role of a multidisciplinary approach (‘One Health’) in the surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases.

Dr. Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek
Dr. Vladimir Savic
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • emerging viruses
  • neglected viruses
  • zoonoses
  • epidemiology
  • pathogenesis
  • clinical aspects
  • immune response
  • diagnosis
  • surveillance

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Published Papers (15 papers)

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16 pages, 1656 KiB  
Article
Severe West Nile Virus Neuroinvasive Disease: Clinical Characteristics, Short- and Long-Term Outcomes
by Marija Santini, Sara Haberle, Snježana Židovec-Lepej, Vladimir Savić, Marija Kusulja, Neven Papić, Klaudija Višković, Ivana Župetić, Giovanni Savini, Ljubo Barbić, Irena Tabain, Marko Kutleša, Vladimir Krajinović, Tanja Potočnik-Hunjadi, Elizabeta Dvorski, Tamara Butigan, Gordana Kolaric-Sviben, Vladimir Stevanović, Lana Gorenec, Ivana Grgić, Filip Glavač, Armin Mehmedović, Eddy Listeš and Tatjana Vilibić-Čavlekadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Pathogens 2022, 11(1), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11010052 - 2 Jan 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3471
Abstract
West Nile Virus Neuroinvasive Disease (WNV NID) requires prolonged intensive care treatment, resulting in high mortality and early disability. Long-term results are lacking. We have conducted an observational retrospective study with a prospective follow-up of WNV NID patients treated at the Intensive Care [...] Read more.
West Nile Virus Neuroinvasive Disease (WNV NID) requires prolonged intensive care treatment, resulting in high mortality and early disability. Long-term results are lacking. We have conducted an observational retrospective study with a prospective follow-up of WNV NID patients treated at the Intensive Care Unit (ICU), University Hospital for Infectious Diseases, Zagreb, Croatia, 2013–2018. Short-term outcomes were vital status, length of stay (LOS), modified Rankin Scale (mRS), and disposition at discharge. Long-term outcomes were vital status and mRS at follow-up. Twenty-three patients were identified, 78.3% males, median age 72 (range 33–84) years. Two patients (8.7%) died in the ICU, with no lethal outcomes after ICU discharge. The median ICU LOS was 19 days (range 5–73), and the median hospital LOS was 34 days (range 7–97). At discharge, 15 (65.2%) patients had moderate to severe/mRS 3–5, 6 (26.0%) had slight disability/mRS 2–1, no patients were symptom-free/mRS 0. Ten (47.6%) survivors were discharged to rehabilitation facilities. The median time to follow-up was nine months (range 6–69). At follow-up, seven patients died (30.5%), five (21.7%) had moderate to severe/mRS 3–5, one (4.3%) had slight disability/mRS 2–1, six (26.1%) had no symptoms/mRS 0, and four (17.4%) were lost to follow-up. Briefly, ten (43.5%) survivors improved their functional status, one (4.3%) was unaltered, and one (4.3%) aggravated. In patients with severe WNV NID, intensive treatment in the acute phase followed by inpatient rehabilitation resulted in significant recovery of functional status after several months. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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11 pages, 763 KiB  
Article
Waning of Maternal Antibodies against Measles Suggests a Large Window of Susceptibility in Infants in Lao People’s Democratic Republic
by Phonepaseuth Khampanisong, Maude Pauly, Phonethipsavanh Nouanthong, Molly A. Vickers, Siriphone Virachith, Kinnaly Xaydalasouk, Antony P. Black, Claude P. Muller and Judith M. Hübschen
Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1316; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101316 - 13 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2510
Abstract
Introduction: Measles is an endemic but largely neglected disease in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. New-borns are protected by maternal antibodies, but antibody waning before measles vaccination at 9 months of age leaves infants susceptible to infection. In this study, the susceptibility window of [...] Read more.
Introduction: Measles is an endemic but largely neglected disease in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. New-borns are protected by maternal antibodies, but antibody waning before measles vaccination at 9 months of age leaves infants susceptible to infection. In this study, the susceptibility window of infants was determined to generate scientific evidence to assess the national measles immunization strategy. Methods: Between 2015 and 2016, demographic data, medical history, and blood samples were collected from 508 mother-child pairs at the provincial hospital in Vientiane. The samples were screened with a commercial kit detecting anti-measles IgG antibodies. Results: The large majority (95.7%) of the mothers were seropositive for anti-measles IgG and antibody titers of the mothers and infants were highly correlated (p < 0.01). While at birth 97.7% of the infants were seropositive, seropositivity rates decreased to 74.2% two months later to reach only 28.2% four months after birth (p < 0.01). Just before the first dose of the measles-rubella vaccine, scheduled at 9 months of age, was actually given, less than 14% of the infants were seropositive. Conclusion: This alarmingly wide susceptibility gap due to rapid maternal antibody decay leaves infants at risk of measles infection and serious disease complications. A high herd immunity is crucial to protect young infants and can be achieved through improved routine vaccination coverage and (expanded age group) supplementary immunization activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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17 pages, 2453 KiB  
Article
Intensive West Nile Virus Circulation in Serbia in 2018—Results of Integrated Surveillance Program
by Tamaš Petrović, Milanko Šekler, Dušan Petrić, Dejan Vidanović, Zoran Debeljak, Gospava Lazić, Diana Lupulović, Mihaela Kavran, Milena Samojlović, Aleksandra Ignjatović Ćupina, Bojana Tešović, Sava Lazić, Mišo Kolarević, Tatjana Labus and Boban Djurić
Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101294 - 8 Oct 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2758
Abstract
The results of the Serbian national integrated West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance program conducted in 2018 and funded by the Serbian Veterinary Directorate are presented. The WNV surveillance program encompassed the entire territory of Serbia and was conducted by the veterinary service in [...] Read more.
The results of the Serbian national integrated West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance program conducted in 2018 and funded by the Serbian Veterinary Directorate are presented. The WNV surveillance program encompassed the entire territory of Serbia and was conducted by the veterinary service in collaboration with entomologists and ornithologists. The objective of the program was early detection of WNV circulation in the environment and timely reporting to the public health service and local authorities to increase clinical and mosquito control preparedness. The program was based on the detection of WNV presence in wild birds (natural hosts) and mosquitoes (virus vectors) and on serological testing of sentinel horses (WNV-specific IgM antibodies). The season 2018 was confirmed to be the season of the most intensive WNV circulation with the highest number and severity of human cases in Serbia ever reported. The most intense WNV circulation was observed in the northern and central parts of Serbia including Vojvodina Province, the Belgrade City area, and surrounding districts, where most positive samples were detected among sentinel animals, mosquitoes and wild birds. The majority of human cases were preceded by the detection of WNV circulation during the surveillance. The WNV surveillance program in 2018 showed satisfactory results in the capacity to indicate the spatial distribution of the risk for humans and sensitivity to early detection of WNV circulation in the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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10 pages, 2385 KiB  
Article
Clinical, Radiological and Functional Characteristics of Pulmonary Diseases among HTLV-1 Infected Patients without Prior Active Tuberculosis Infection
by Rodrigo Cachay, Marcela Gil-Zacarias, Takashi Watanabe-Tejada, Alvaro Schwalb, Fernando Mejía, Oscar Gayoso and Eduardo Gotuzzo
Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070895 - 14 Jul 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2374
Abstract
The lifelong infection with the human T lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) has been associated with a variety of clinical manifestations; one of the less-explored is HTLV-1-associated pulmonary disease. Imaging of lung damage caused by the HTLV-1 hyperinflammatory cascade can be similar to [...] Read more.
The lifelong infection with the human T lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) has been associated with a variety of clinical manifestations; one of the less-explored is HTLV-1-associated pulmonary disease. Imaging of lung damage caused by the HTLV-1 hyperinflammatory cascade can be similar to sequelae from TB infection. Our study aims to describe the pulmonary lesions of HTLV-1-positive patients without past or current active TB and evaluate pulmonary function. We found that nine out of fourteen patients with no known TB disease history presented bronchiectasis, mainly found bilaterally while five presented pulmonary fibrosis. A normal pattern was found in most patients with a pulmonary functional test. Furthermore, there was no association between the PVL and the chest-CT scan findings, nor with spirometry results. However, the sample size was insufficient to conclude it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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17 pages, 2067 KiB  
Article
Genetic Evidence of Multiple Introductions of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus into Saratov Region, Russia
by Yuri V. Saltykov, Anna A. Kolosova, Nadezhda N. Filonova, Alexander N. Chichkin and Valentina A. Feodorova
Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 716; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060716 - 7 Jun 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3837
Abstract
Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is the causative agent of lumpy skin disease (LSD) that has been recently reported in the South-East and North Asian parts of the Russian Federation. During 2017–2019, there were more than 30 LSD outbreaks in Saratov Region despite [...] Read more.
Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is the causative agent of lumpy skin disease (LSD) that has been recently reported in the South-East and North Asian parts of the Russian Federation. During 2017–2019, there were more than 30 LSD outbreaks in Saratov Region despite active inoculation of cattle with heterologous vaccine. Importantly, the first case of the novel recombinant LSDV strain was reported here in 2017. This study aimed to determine the main clonal lineage(s) of LSDV strains circulated within Saratov Region and other regions of Russia since the first introduction of LSDV. The molecular typing and subtyping based on the coding regions of the G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR) gene resulted in a discrimination of all outbreak-related LSDV strains into two main types, such as Type I and Type II, and subtypes Ia-d and IIa-g. Phylogenetically, eleven LSDV lineages were revealed in Russia including the five ones in Saratov Region. They were the following: (i) the Neethling wild Type Ia/2017; (ii) the recombinant Saratov IIc/2017/2019; (iii) the specific Dergachevskyi IId/2017; (iv) the Khvalynsky IIg/2018, and (v) the Haden-Type IIa lineage for the six LSDV strains detected in cattle immunized with heterologous vaccine during the last LSD outbreak in the Saratov Region, Nesterovo Village, in 2019 (Nesterovo-2019 strains). A single LSDV strain detected in Saratov Region in 2017 had the same Type Ia that was identified in 2016 in the bordered Republic of Kazakhstan. Phylogeographic analysis demonstrated three nominal clusters of LSDV types in the following Russian Federation territories: (I) the Central European part; (II) the South-East of the European part; (III) the North Asian part. Cluster I was represented by mainly Type I strains, while both Clusters 2 and 3 contained predominantly Type II strains. The Clusters I and II partially overlapped, while Cluster 3 was separate. Multiple introductions of LSDV into Saratov Region in 2017–2019 using GPCR-based molecular typing and subtyping were revealed. This scheme is a promising tool for molecular discrimination of LSDV strains derived from both vaccinated and unvaccinated against LSD cattle as well as for molecular epidemiology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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14 pages, 749 KiB  
Article
Serological Evidence of Multiple Zoonotic Viral Infections among Wild Rodents in Barbados
by Kirk Osmond Douglas, Claire Cayol, Kristian Michael Forbes, Thelma Alafia Samuels, Olli Vapalahti, Tarja Sironen and Marquita Gittens-St. Hilaire
Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 663; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060663 - 28 May 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3612
Abstract
Background: Rodents are reservoirs for several zoonotic pathogens that can cause human infectious diseases, including orthohantaviruses, mammarenaviruses and orthopoxviruses. Evidence exists for these viruses circulating among rodents and causing human infections in the Americas, but much less evidence exists for their presence in [...] Read more.
Background: Rodents are reservoirs for several zoonotic pathogens that can cause human infectious diseases, including orthohantaviruses, mammarenaviruses and orthopoxviruses. Evidence exists for these viruses circulating among rodents and causing human infections in the Americas, but much less evidence exists for their presence in wild rodents in the Caribbean. Methods: Here, we conducted serological and molecular investigations of wild rodents in Barbados to determine the prevalence of orthohantavirus, mammarenavirus and orthopoxvirus infections, and the possible role of these rodent species as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. Using immunofluorescent assays (IFA), rodent sera were screened for the presence of antibodies to orthohantavirus, mammarenavirus (Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus—LCMV) and orthopoxvirus (Cowpox virus—CPXV) infections. RT-PCR was then conducted on orthohantavirus and mammarenavirus-seropositive rodent sera and tissues, to detect the presence of viral RNA. Results: We identified antibodies against orthohantavirus, mammarenavirus, and orthopoxvirus among wild mice and rats (3.8%, 2.5% and 7.5% seropositivity rates respectively) in Barbados. No orthohantavirus or mammarenavirus viral RNA was detected from seropositive rodent sera or tissues using RT–PCR. Conclusions: Key findings of this study are the first serological evidence of orthohantavirus infections in Mus musculus and the first serological evidence of mammarenavirus and orthopoxvirus infections in Rattus norvegicus and M. musculus in the English-speaking Caribbean. Rodents may present a potential zoonotic and biosecurity risk for transmission of three human pathogens, namely orthohantaviruses, mammarenaviruses and orthopoxviruses in Barbados. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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12 pages, 247 KiB  
Article
Investigating the Presence of SARS CoV-2 in Free-Living and Captive Animals
by Lorena Jemeršić, Ivana Lojkić, Nina Krešić, Tomislav Keros, Tajana Amšel Zelenika, Luka Jurinović, Damir Skok, Ingeborg Bata, Jadranko Boras, Boris Habrun and Dragan Brnić
Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060635 - 21 May 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 4643
Abstract
Due to SARS CoV-2 recombination rates, number of infected people and recent reports of environmental contamination, the possibility of SARS CoV-2 transmission to animals can be expected. We tested samples of dominant free-living and captive wildlife species in Croatia for the presence of [...] Read more.
Due to SARS CoV-2 recombination rates, number of infected people and recent reports of environmental contamination, the possibility of SARS CoV-2 transmission to animals can be expected. We tested samples of dominant free-living and captive wildlife species in Croatia for the presence of anti-SARS CoV-2 antibodies and viral RNA. In total, from June 2020 until February 2021, we tested blood, muscle extract and fecal samples of 422 free-living wild boars (Sus scrofa), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and jackals (Canis aureus); blood and cloacal swabs of 111 yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) and fecal samples of 32 zoo animals. A commercially available ELISA (ID.Vet, France) and as a confirmatory test, a surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT; GenScript, Netherlands) were used. Fecal samples were tested for the presence of viral RNA by a real-time RT–PCR protocol. Fifteen out of 533 (2.8%) positive ELISA results were detected; in wild boars (3.9%), red foxes (2.9%) and jackals (4.6%). However, the positive findings were not confirmed by sVNT. No viral RNA was found. In conclusion, no spillover occurred within the investigated period (second COVID-19 wave). However, further investigation is needed, especially regarding wildlife sample features for serological tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
16 pages, 654 KiB  
Article
Investigating the Circulation of Ebola Viruses in Bats during the Ebola Virus Disease Outbreaks in the Equateur and North Kivu Provinces of the Democratic Republic of Congo from 2018
by Audrey Lacroix, Placide Mbala Kingebeni, Simon Pierre Ndimbo Kumugo, Guy Lempu, Christelle Butel, Laetitia Serrano, Nicole Vidal, Guillaume Thaurignac, Amandine Esteban, Daniel Mukadi Bamuleka, Jacques Likofata, Eric Delaporte, Jean-Jacques Muyembe Tamfum, Ahidjo Ayouba, Martine Peeters and Steve Ahuka Mundeke
Pathogens 2021, 10(5), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10050557 - 4 May 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3929
Abstract
With 12 of the 31 outbreaks, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is highly affected by Ebolavirus disease (EVD). To better understand the role of bats in the ecology of Ebola viruses, we conducted surveys in bats during two recent EVD outbreaks and [...] Read more.
With 12 of the 31 outbreaks, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is highly affected by Ebolavirus disease (EVD). To better understand the role of bats in the ecology of Ebola viruses, we conducted surveys in bats during two recent EVD outbreaks and in two areas with previous outbreaks. Dried blood spots were tested for antibodies to ebolaviruses and oral and rectal swabs were screened for the presence of filovirus using a broadly reactive semi-nested RT-PCR. Between 2018 and 2020, 892 (88.6%) frugivorous and 115 (11.4%) insectivorous bats were collected. Overall, 11/925 (1.2%) to 100/925 (10.8%) bats showed antibodies to at least one Ebolavirus antigen depending on the positivity criteria. Antibodies were detected in fruit bats from the four sites and from species previously documented to harbor Ebola antibodies or RNA. We tested for the first time a large number of bats during ongoing EVD outbreaks in DRC, but no viral RNA was detected in the 676 sampled bats. Our study illustrates the difficulty to document the role of bats as a source of Ebolaviruses as they might clear quickly the virus. Given the increasing frequency of EVD outbreaks, more studies on the animal reservoir are urgently needed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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15 pages, 3951 KiB  
Article
A Remarkable Genetic Diversity of Rotavirus A Circulating in Red Fox Population in Croatia
by Daniel Čolić, Nina Krešić, Željko Mihaljević, Tibor Andreanszky, Davor Balić, Marica Lolić and Dragan Brnić
Pathogens 2021, 10(4), 485; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040485 - 16 Apr 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3353
Abstract
Rotaviruses (RV), especially Rotavirus A (RVA), are globally recognized as pathogens causing neonatal diarrhea, but they also affect intensive animal farming. However, the knowledge on their significance in wildlife is rather limited. The aim of the study was to unveil the prevalence, molecular [...] Read more.
Rotaviruses (RV), especially Rotavirus A (RVA), are globally recognized as pathogens causing neonatal diarrhea, but they also affect intensive animal farming. However, the knowledge on their significance in wildlife is rather limited. The aim of the study was to unveil the prevalence, molecular epidemiology, and genetic diversity of RVA strains circulating in the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) population in Croatia. From 2018 to 2019, 370 fecal samples from fox carcasses hunted for rabies monitoring were collected. All samples were first tested using a VP2 real-time RT-PCR; in the subsequent course, positives were subjected to VP7 and VP4 genotyping. The results revealed an RVA prevalence of 14.9%, while the circulating RVA strains showed a remarkable genetic diversity in terms of 11 G and nine P genotypes, among which one G and three P were tentatively identified as novel. In total, eight genotype combinations were detected: G8P[14], G9P[3], G9P[23], G10P[11], G10P[3], G11P[13], G15P[21], and G?P[?]. The results suggest a complex background of previous interspecies transmission events, shedding new light on the potential influence of foxes in RVA epidemiology. Their role as potential reservoirs of broad range of RVA genotypes, usually considered typical solely of domestic animals and humans, cannot be dismissed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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7 pages, 725 KiB  
Article
Environmental Stability of SARS-CoV-2 on Different Types of Surfaces under Indoor and Seasonal Climate Conditions
by Taeyong Kwon, Natasha N. Gaudreault and Juergen A. Richt
Pathogens 2021, 10(2), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10020227 - 18 Feb 2021
Cited by 62 | Viewed by 5190
Abstract
Transmission of severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) mainly occurs through direct contact with an infected person via droplets. A potential role of contaminated surfaces in SARS-CoV-2 transmission has been suggested since the virus has been extensively detected on environmental surfaces. These findings [...] Read more.
Transmission of severe acute respiratory coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) mainly occurs through direct contact with an infected person via droplets. A potential role of contaminated surfaces in SARS-CoV-2 transmission has been suggested since the virus has been extensively detected on environmental surfaces. These findings have driven the investigation of virus stability on surfaces under several conditions. However, it remains unclear how long the infectious virus survives on surfaces under different climate conditions, which could play a role in predicting the seasonality of SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, the aim of this study was to estimate the virus stability and its biological half-life on various types of surfaces under indoor and seasonal climate conditions. This study revealed that SARS-CoV-2 survived the longest on surfaces under winter conditions, with a survival post-contamination on most surfaces up to 21 days, followed by spring/fall conditions, with a survival up to 7 days. Infectious virus was isolated up to 4 days post-contamination under indoor conditions, whereas no infectious virus was found at 3 days post-contamination under summer conditions. Our study demonstrates the remarkable persistence of SARS-CoV-2 on many different common surfaces, especially under winter conditions, and raises awareness to the potential risk of contaminated surfaces to spread the virus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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7 pages, 1470 KiB  
Article
High Seroprevalence of Hepatitis E Virus Infection Among East Balkan Swine (Sus scrofa) in Bulgaria: Preliminary Results
by Ilia Tsachev, Magdalena Baymakova, Roman Pepovich, Nadezhda Palova, Plamen Marutsov, Krasimira Gospodinova, Todor Kundurzhiev and Massimo Ciccozzi
Pathogens 2020, 9(11), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9110911 - 3 Nov 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2340
Abstract
The East Balkan swine (Sus scrofa) is the only aboriginal pig breed in Bulgaria, and it is indigenous to the eastern part of the country. The aim of the present study was to investigate East Balkan swine (EBS) in Bulgaria for [...] Read more.
The East Balkan swine (Sus scrofa) is the only aboriginal pig breed in Bulgaria, and it is indigenous to the eastern part of the country. The aim of the present study was to investigate East Balkan swine (EBS) in Bulgaria for serological evidence of hepatitis E virus (HEV). Sera from 171 swine from two parts of the country (northeastern and southeastern) were tested for anti-HEV IgG antibodies. The overall HEV seroprevalence was 82.5% (141/171), and for weaners it was 77.2% (44/57), for fattening pigs 79.0% (45/57), and for adults 91.2% (52/57). HEV positivity was higher in fattening pigs and adults compared to weaners: OR = 1.108 (95% CI: 0.456–2.692) and OR = 3.073 (95% CI: 1.016–9.294), respectively. This study provides the first evidence of exposure to HEV in EBS from Bulgaria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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15 pages, 8344 KiB  
Review
A Scoping Review of West Nile Virus Seroprevalence Studies among African Equids
by Olaolu T. Olufemi, Marta Barba and Janet M. Daly
Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070899 - 15 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4482
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging and re-emerging zoonotic flavivirus first identified in and endemic to Africa. The virus is transmitted between birds by biting mosquitoes, with equids and humans being incidental hosts. The majority of infected incidental hosts display no or [...] Read more.
West Nile virus (WNV) is an emerging and re-emerging zoonotic flavivirus first identified in and endemic to Africa. The virus is transmitted between birds by biting mosquitoes, with equids and humans being incidental hosts. The majority of infected incidental hosts display no or only mild clinical signs, but a fraction develop encephalitis. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and evaluate primary research on the presence of antibodies to WNV among African equids. Three bibliographic databases and the grey literature were searched. Of 283 articles identified, only 16 satisfied all the inclusion criteria. Data were collated on study design and outcomes. The overall seroprevalence reported ranged from 17.4 to 90.3%, with 1998 (35%) of the 5746 horses, donkeys and mules having screened positive for WNV antibodies. Several articles determined that seroprevalence increased significantly with age. Due to co-circulation of other flaviviruses in Africa, in the majority of studies that screened samples by ELISA, positive results were confirmed using a more specific neutralization test. However, only eight studies tested against other flaviviruses, including Potiskum, Uganda S, Wesselsbron and yellow fever virus in one, Japanese encephalitis and Usutu virus (USUV) in one, tick-borne encephalitis and USUV in one and USUV only in three. Equids are regarded as useful sentinel animals for WNV, but variation in study design poses challenges when trying to determine risk factors for, and trends in, WNV seroprevalence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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9 pages, 2324 KiB  
Review
Current Status of Rabies and Its Eradication in Eastern and Southeastern Europe
by Ivana Lojkić, Ivana Šimić, Tomislav Bedeković and Nina Krešić
Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 742; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060742 - 12 Jun 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 10121
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the current status of rabies in Europe, with special emphasis on Croatia and Southeast and East Europe. Due to the systematic implementation of a rabies eradication program by oral vaccination of wild [...] Read more.
The objective of this paper is to provide an overview of the current status of rabies in Europe, with special emphasis on Croatia and Southeast and East Europe. Due to the systematic implementation of a rabies eradication program by oral vaccination of wild animals, by the end of the 20th century, most West and Central European countries were rabies-free. The EU goal was to eradicate rabies in wildlife and domestic animals by 2020. No matter how achievable the goal seemed to be, the disease is still present in the eastern part of the EU, as was notified in 2020 by two member states—Poland and Romania. Croatia has been rabies-free for the last seven years but given that it borders a non-EU country in which a case of rabies was confirmed in 2020, it will continue to contribute to the maintenance of the rabies-free region. A rabies-free EU can only be achieved by continuous oral vaccination, coordination and a regional approach. The prevention of reintroductions from bordering countries in which rabies has not been eradicated yet, and the support for the eradication efforts made by these countries, are goals still pending. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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11 pages, 1529 KiB  
Review
Hepatitis E Virus in Croatia in the “One-Health” Context
by Anna Mrzljak, Lorena Jemersic, Vladimir Savic, Ivan Balen, Maja Ilic, Zeljka Jurekovic, Jadranka Pavicic-Saric, Danko Mikulic and Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek
Pathogens 2021, 10(6), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10060699 - 4 Jun 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3538
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the most common cause of viral hepatitis globally. The first human case of autochthonous HEV infection in Croatia was reported in 2012, with the undefined zoonotic transmission of HEV genotype 3. This narrative review comprehensively addresses the current [...] Read more.
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is the most common cause of viral hepatitis globally. The first human case of autochthonous HEV infection in Croatia was reported in 2012, with the undefined zoonotic transmission of HEV genotype 3. This narrative review comprehensively addresses the current knowledge on the HEV epidemiology in humans and animals in Croatia. Published studies showed the presence of HEV antibodies in different population groups, such as chronic patients, healthcare professionals, voluntary blood donors and professionally exposed and pregnant women. The highest seroprevalence in humans was found in patients on hemodialysis in a study conducted in 2018 (27.9%). Apart from humans, different studies have confirmed the infection in pigs, wild boars and a mouse, indicating the interspecies transmission of HEV due to direct or indirect contact or as a foodborne infection. Continued periodical surveys in humans and animals are needed to identify the possible changes in the epidemiology of HEV infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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24 pages, 2732 KiB  
Review
Emerging and Neglected Viruses of Zoonotic Importance in Croatia
by Tatjana Vilibic-Cavlek, Ljubo Barbic, Anna Mrzljak, Dragan Brnic, Ana Klobucar, Maja Ilic, Natasa Janev-Holcer, Maja Bogdanic, Lorena Jemersic, Vladimir Stevanovic, Irena Tabain, Stjepan Krcmar, Marko Vucelja, Jelena Prpic, Marko Boljfetic, Pavle Jelicic, Josip Madic, Ivana Ferencak and Vladimir Savic
Pathogens 2021, 10(1), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10010073 - 15 Jan 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 5081
Abstract
Several arboviruses have emerged in Croatia in recent years. Tick-borne encephalitis is endemic in continental counties; however, new natural micro-foci have been detected. Two autochthonous dengue cases were reported in 2010. West Nile virus emerged in 2012, followed by emergence of Usutu virus [...] Read more.
Several arboviruses have emerged in Croatia in recent years. Tick-borne encephalitis is endemic in continental counties; however, new natural micro-foci have been detected. Two autochthonous dengue cases were reported in 2010. West Nile virus emerged in 2012, followed by emergence of Usutu virus in 2013. Although high seroprevalence rates of Toscana virus have been detected among residents of Croatian littoral, the virus remains neglected, with only a few clinical cases of neuroinvasive infections reported. Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus is a neglected neuroinvasive rodent-borne virus. So far, there are no reports on human clinical cases; however, the seroprevalence studies indicate the virus presence in the Croatian mainland. Puumala and Dobrava hantaviruses are widely distributing rodent-borne viruses with sporadic and epidemic occurrence. Hepatitis E virus is an emerging food-borne virus in Croatia. After the emergence in 2012, cases were regularly recorded. Seropositivity varies greatly by region and population group. Rotaviruses represent a significant healthcare burden since rotavirus vaccination is not included in the Croatian national immunization program. Additionally, rotaviruses are widely distributed in the Croatian ecosystem. A novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, emerged in February 2020 and spread rapidly throughout the country. This review focuses on emerging and neglected viruses of zoonotic importance detected in Croatia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging and Neglected Viruses and Zoonoses)
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