Pathogens

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30 pages, 1602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

First Expert Elicitation of Knowledge on Drivers of Emergence of Bovine Besnoitiosis in Europe

by Claude Saegerman, Julien Evrard, Jean-Yves Houtain, Jean-Pierre Alzieu, Juana Bianchini, Serge Eugène Mpouam, Gereon Schares, Emmanuel Liénard, Philippe Jacquiet, Luca Villa, Gema Álvarez-García, Alessia Libera Gazzonis, Arcangelo Gentile and Laurent Delooz

Pathogens 2022, 11(7), 753; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11070753 - 1 Jul 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2003

Abstract

Bovine besnoitiosis (BB) is a chronic and debilitating parasitic disease in cattle caused by the protozoan parasite Besnoitia besnoiti. South European countries are affected and have reported clinical cases of BB. However, BB is considered as emerging in other countries/regions of central, [...] Read more.

Bovine besnoitiosis (BB) is a chronic and debilitating parasitic disease in cattle caused by the protozoan parasite Besnoitia besnoiti. South European countries are affected and have reported clinical cases of BB. However, BB is considered as emerging in other countries/regions of central, eastern and northern Europe. Yet, data on drivers of emergence of BB in Europe are scarce. In this study, fifty possible drivers of emergence of BB in cattle were identified. A scoring system was developed per driver. Then, the scoring was elicited from eleven recognized European experts to: (i) allocate a score to each driver, (ii) weight the score of drivers within each domain and (iii) weight the different domains among themselves. An overall weighted score was calculated per driver, and drivers were ranked in decreasing order of importance. Regression tree analysis was used to group drivers with comparable likelihoods to play a role in the emergence of BB in cattle in Europe. Finally, robustness testing of expert elicitation was performed for the seven drivers having the highest probability to play a key role in the emergence of BB: i.e., (i) legal/illegal movements of live animals from neighbouring/European Union member states or (ii) from third countries, (iii) risk of showing no clinical sign and silent spread during infection and post infection, (iv) as a consequence, difficulty to detect the emergence, (v) existence of vectors and their potential spread, (vi) European geographical proximity of the pathogen/disease to the country, and (vii) animal density of farms. Provided the limited scientific knowledge on the topic, expert elicitation of knowledge, multi-criteria decision analysis, cluster and sensitivity analyses are very important to prioritize future studies, e.g., the need for quantitative import risk assessment and estimation of the burden of BB to evidence and influence policymaking towards changing (or not) its status as a reportable disease, with prevention and control activities targeting, firstly, the top seven drivers. The present methodology could be applied to other emerging animal diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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9 pages, 597 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Orbivirus Screening from Imported Captive Oryx in the United Arab Emirates Stresses the Importance of Pre-Import and Transit Measures

by Ludovic Martinelle, Andy Haegeman, Louis Lignereux, Anne-Lise Chaber, Fabiana Dal Pozzo, Ilse De Leeuw, Kris De Clercq and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2022, 11(6), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11060697 - 17 Jun 2022

Viewed by 3644

Abstract

From 1975 to 2021, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) imported more than 1300 live Arabian oryxes (AOs) and scimitar-horned oryxes (SHOs) for conservation programs. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of orbiviruses Bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease [...] Read more.

From 1975 to 2021, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) imported more than 1300 live Arabian oryxes (AOs) and scimitar-horned oryxes (SHOs) for conservation programs. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of orbiviruses Bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) in AOs and SHOs from captive herds in the UAE. Between October 2014 and April 2015, 16 AOs and 13 SHOs originating from Texas (USA) and 195 out of about 4000 SHOs from two locations in the UAE were blood sampled to be tested by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assays. Eight imported AOs (50% CI [24.7–75.4%]) and eight imported SHOs (61.5% CI [31.6–86.1%]) were found BTV seropositive, in contrast with three out of 195 SHOs (1.5% CI [0.3–4.4%]) from the Emirates. BTV-2 genome was detected in 6/16 of the Arabian Oryx, and amongst those, one out of six was seronegative. None of the tested samples was found positive for EHDV. Our results illustrate the wide local variation regarding BTV seroprevalence in domestic and wild ruminants in the Arabian Peninsula. These results stress the need for pre-import risk assessment when considering translocation of wild ruminant species susceptible to orbiviruses not only in the country of destination but also where transit happens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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16 pages, 3364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Diagnosis of Coxiella burnetii Cattle Abortion: A One-Year Observational Study

by Claude Saegerman, Fabien Grégoire and Laurent Delooz

Pathogens 2022, 11(4), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11040429 - 1 Apr 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2933

Abstract

Q fever is a zoonosis occurring worldwide in livestock. Often neglected in differential diagnoses, Q fever can persist in herds causing financial losses. In ruminants, well-known manifestations of Q fever are metritis, infertility, abortion, stillbirth and delivery of a weak or premature calf. [...] Read more.

Q fever is a zoonosis occurring worldwide in livestock. Often neglected in differential diagnoses, Q fever can persist in herds causing financial losses. In ruminants, well-known manifestations of Q fever are metritis, infertility, abortion, stillbirth and delivery of a weak or premature calf. In cattle, Q fever is frequently asymptomatic and/or under-reported. Few studies are available on the diagnosis of Coxiella burnetii as a cause of abortion in cattle using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for pathogen detection while enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is used to assess exposure. Moreover, existing studies include a relatively small number of abortions. The aim of this study is to assess, in the southern part of Belgium, during a year, the performance of diagnosis of C. burnetii as a cause of abortion and the putative benefit of enhanced serology using anamnesis (animal patient data, and present, past and environmental history). A one-year random selection of 1212 abortions was analysed both with the PCR method (tissues from fetuses) and two commercialised ELISAs (sera from the mothers). Relative sensitivity and specificity of the ELISA tests were assessed using PCR as the reference test. The prevalence of C. burnetii PCR positive was 8.5% (95% CI: 6.99–10.21). The diagnostic value of the ELISA tests was assessed using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC). The sensitivity, specificity and AUC-ROC were similar for both ELISA tests. The diagnostic capacity of the ELISA was confirmed and slightly enhanced if anamnestic information was integrated with a unique scoring index system. A high negative predictive value was demonstrated and a significant reverse association between Ct values and a percentage of the ratio of the optical density between the sample and the positive control (ELISA A or ELISA B) enabling the use of ELISA as an exclusion diagnostic. This study is original by integrating the serological result and the anamnesis in a single index. It opens a new window in enhanced veterinary clinical decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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20 pages, 1026 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Associated Decision and Management Factors on Cattle Tick Level of Infestation in Two Tropical Areas of Ecuador

by Valeria Paucar, Ximena Pérez-Otáñez, Richar Rodríguez-Hidalgo, Cecilia Perez, Darío Cepeda-Bastidas, Jorge Grijalva, Sandra Enríquez, Susana Arciniegas-Ortega, Sophie O. Vanwambeke, Lenin Ron-Garrido and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2022, 11(4), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11040403 - 26 Mar 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3879

Abstract

Decision-making on tick control practices is linked to the level of knowledge about livestock farming and to the social context in which individuals practice them. Tick infestation is one of the main problems in tropical livestock production. The objective of this study was [...] Read more.

Decision-making on tick control practices is linked to the level of knowledge about livestock farming and to the social context in which individuals practice them. Tick infestation is one of the main problems in tropical livestock production. The objective of this study was to characterize tick-control related practices in two tropical livestock areas and their potential association with the level of tick infestation. A total of 139 farms were included in this survey. To determine this association, a multivariate logistic regression model was used. A stepwise model selection procedure was used and model validation was tested. Cattle husbandry as a main activity, the use of external paddocks, the use of amitraz, and the lack of mechanization on the farm were related with high tick infestation. On the other hand, owner involvement in the preparation of acaricide solution was identified as a protective factor against high tick infestation. At animal level, age (old), body condition status (thin), and lactation were also associated with high tick infestations, while Bos primigenius indicus cattle and their crosses reduced the probability of high tick infestations. The factors studied, such as herd size, education level of the owners, and veterinary guidance, varied from farm to farm. Nonetheless, these differences did not generate changes in the level of tick infestation. According to the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC), the model at farm level predicts a high level of infestation, with an accuracy of 72.00% and high sensitivity. In addition, at animal level, crossbreeding with indicus cattle and breeding selection for host resistance will be useful against high tick infestation. Likewise, the implementation of programs of capacitation and research on tick control for farmers, cowboys, and vets in these areas is necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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15 pages, 2296 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Emergence of Besnoitia besnoiti in Belgium

by Laurent Delooz, Julien Evrard, Serge Eugene Mpouam and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(12), 1529; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10121529 - 23 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2812

Abstract

Bovine besnoitiosis is a cattle disease caused by a protozoan parasite called Besnoitia besnoiti. It is of serious economic concern to the cattle industry and also compromises animal welfare. For several years, it has been considered an emerging disease in some countries and [...] Read more.

Bovine besnoitiosis is a cattle disease caused by a protozoan parasite called Besnoitia besnoiti. It is of serious economic concern to the cattle industry and also compromises animal welfare. For several years, it has been considered an emerging disease in some countries and regions located in the north of Europe far away from the known endemic areas in the south. This study describes the situation in the southern part of Belgium, where the parasite was recently introduced through imports of animals coming from departments of France where the disease was present. It details the detection of clinical cases as well as disease transmission features related to contacts during grazing and sales of infected cattle. A tracking and monitoring system was quickly set up and detected twelve outbreaks. Several cattle were controlled, but the lack of appropriate regulations weakens disease-management efforts. Hopefully, this predictable and silent introduction triggers the awareness of decision-makers about the need for an appropriate prevention and control policy, law enforcement, and the implementation of necessary measures to avoid bovine besnoitiosis becoming endemic in Belgium or other non-endemic countries. In addition, more proactive surveillance is required from authorities through threat analysis in the context of the risk of emergence or re-emergence of infectious animal diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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10 pages, 929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bluetongue Virus Infections in Cattle Herds of Manabí Province of Ecuador

by Euclides De la Torre, Nixon Moreira, Claude Saegerman, Kris De Clercq, María Salinas, Alex Maldonado, David Jarrín, María Sol Vaca, Silvia Pachacama, Jorge Espinoza, Hipatia Delgado and Maritza Barrera

Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1445; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111445 - 6 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2867

Abstract

Bluetongue (BT) is a viral disease transmitted by Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) to domestic and wild ruminants. Infections in cattle are mainly subclinical, but severe necrotic and hemorrhagic illness and death may occur depending on the strain of the virus and other factors; [...] Read more.

Bluetongue (BT) is a viral disease transmitted by Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) to domestic and wild ruminants. Infections in cattle are mainly subclinical, but severe necrotic and hemorrhagic illness and death may occur depending on the strain of the virus and other factors; cattle act as a reservoir for the virus. Although the Ecuadorian coast has climatic conditions that favor the presence of the vector, there are few serologic or virologic BTV studies available. Manabí is a coastal province in which livestock farming is mostly implemented in the northern part. We conducted two studies to assess, for the first time, the presence of active BTV infections in Manabí province. We collected 430 serum samples from 38 randomly selected farms between March and July 2019 to perform BTV competitive ELISA. In addition, six seropositive farms were selected to place eight sentinel BTV-naive calves. All these calves were blood sampled and the presence of BTV RNA and antibodies was tested for by RT-PCR and competitive ELISA, respectively, once a week for 6–8 weeks until seroconversion was evidenced. A high individual seroprevalence (99%) was obtained, and all investigated farms had BTV seropositive animals. All sentinel calves became BTV viremic and seroconverted. The first viremia appeared after 2–5 weeks from arrival at the farm; they seroconverted 1–3 weeks later. We demonstrate for the first time that there is a high level of BTV circulation north of Manabí, with active infections on these farms. Integrated control strategies such as hygienic measures on farms to reduce midge populations would be advisable for the owners as mitigation measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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11 pages, 3588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Cross-Species Transmission of a Camel-Derived Genotype 8 Hepatitis E Virus to Rabbits

by Wenjing Zhang, Yasushi Ami, Yuriko Suzaki, Michiyo Kataoka, Naokazu Takeda, Masamichi Muramatsu and Tiancheng Li

Pathogens 2021, 10(11), 1374; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10111374 - 24 Oct 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2331

Abstract

Novel genotypes of hepatitis E virus (HEV), i.e., HEV-5, HEV-7, and HEV-8, have been identified in wild boar, dromedary camels, and Bactrian camels, respectively, and they transmit to cynomolgus monkeys in a trans-species manner, raising the potential for zoonotic infection. Rabbits are the [...] Read more.

Novel genotypes of hepatitis E virus (HEV), i.e., HEV-5, HEV-7, and HEV-8, have been identified in wild boar, dromedary camels, and Bactrian camels, respectively, and they transmit to cynomolgus monkeys in a trans-species manner, raising the potential for zoonotic infection. Rabbits are the natural reservoir for rabbit HEV, but they are also susceptible to HEV-3 and HEV-4. It has been unknown whether rabbits are susceptible to HEV-5, HEV-7, and HEV-8. To investigate the infectivity of novel HEVs in rabbits and to assess whether rabbits are appropriate animal models for these HEVs, we inoculated Japanese white rabbits with HEV-5, HEV-7, and HEV-8, respectively. We observed that viral RNA was present in the fecal specimens of the HEV-8-inoculated rabbits and anti-HEV IgG antibodies were present in its sera, although anti-HEV IgM was undetectable and no significant elevation of ALT was observed. These results indicated that HEV-8 crossed species and infected the rabbits. No evidence for replication was observed in HEV-5 and HEV-7, suggesting that rabbits are not susceptible to these genotypes. The antibodies elicited in the HEV-8-infected rabbits did not protect them from the rabbit HEV challenge, suggesting that the antigenicity differs between HEV-8 and rabbit HEV. Antigenic analyses demonstrated that anti-HEV-8 antibodies reacted more strongly with homologous HEV-8 virus-like particles (VLPs) compared to heterologous rabbit HEV VLPs, but anti-rabbit HEV antibody had similar reactivity to the VLPs of rabbit HEV and HEV-8, suggesting that HEV-8 lacks some epitope(s) that exist in rabbit HEV and induced the neutralizing antibodies against rabbit HEV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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13 pages, 283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Extrinsic Incubation Period of Zika Virus in Florida Mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus

by Rebecca A. Zimler and Barry W. Alto

Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1252; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101252 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2623

Abstract

The Asian genotype of Zika virus (ZIKV) emerged in Brazil in 2015 and subsequently spread throughout the Americas. In July 2016, Florida experienced its first locally acquired ZIKV infection in the continental U.S. Concerns about health risks from ZIKV infection have increased the [...] Read more.

The Asian genotype of Zika virus (ZIKV) emerged in Brazil in 2015 and subsequently spread throughout the Americas. In July 2016, Florida experienced its first locally acquired ZIKV infection in the continental U.S. Concerns about health risks from ZIKV infection have increased the need to investigate the interactions between potential mosquito vectors and ZIKV. The time it takes for an arbovirus to propagate within a mosquito, and become transmissible, is the extrinsic incubation period (EIP). The EIP for potential mosquito vectors in Florida is unknown. To address this gap in the understanding of ZIKV epidemiology, Florida Aedes aegypti (L.) and Ae. albopictus (Skuse) were orally exposed to ZIKV infected blood meals and fully engorged mosquitoes were held at a constant temperature of 28 °C through the duration of the experiment. Saliva expectorates were collected from cohorts of mosquitoes and tested for the presence of ZIKV at three-day intervals over a period of 24 days to allow for an evaluation of the EIP of the emergent Asian lineage of ZIKV. High rates of infected bodies in Ae. albopictus (75–94%) and Ae. aegypti (68–86%) were observed throughout the incubation period, which did not differ by species. Higher rates of disseminated infection were observed later during the incubation period but did not differ between species. We calculated the 50% EIP to be shorter in Ae. albopictus than Ae. aegypti (16.2 and 18.2 days post infection, respectively). The competence for ZIKV observed in both species may contribute to high rates of ZIKV transmission in Florida populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

13 pages, 2329 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibody Profile Comparison against MSP1 Antigens of Multiple Plasmodium Species in Human Serum Samples from Two Different Brazilian Populations Using a Multiplex Serological Assay

by Eliana Ferreira Monteiro, Carmen Fernandez-Becerra, Izilda Curado, Gerhard Wunderlich, Meire Ioshie Hiyane and Karin Kirchgatter

Pathogens 2021, 10(9), 1138; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10091138 - 4 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2278

Abstract

Plasmodium malariae has a wide geographic distribution, but mainly at very low parasitemias and in co-infections, leading to an underestimated prevalence of this species. Studies for the detection of antibodies against Plasmodium recombinant proteins are increasingly used to map geographical distributions, seroprevalence and [...] Read more.

Plasmodium malariae has a wide geographic distribution, but mainly at very low parasitemias and in co-infections, leading to an underestimated prevalence of this species. Studies for the detection of antibodies against Plasmodium recombinant proteins are increasingly used to map geographical distributions, seroprevalence and transmission intensities of malaria infection. However, no seroepidemiological survey using recombinant P. malariae proteins has been conducted in Brazil. This work evaluated the antibody response in serum samples of individuals from endemic regions of Brazil (the Amazon region and Atlantic Forest) against five recombinant proteins of P. malariae merozoite surface protein 1 (MSP1), and the MSP1 C-terminal portions of P. vivax and P. falciparum, in a multiplex assay. The positivity was 69.5% of samples recognizing at least one MSP1 recombinant protein. The mean of the Reactivity Index for the C-terminal portion of the P. falciparum was significantly higher compared to the other recombinant proteins, followed by the C-terminal of P. vivax and the N-terminal of P. malariae. Among the recombinant P. malariae proteins, the N-terminal of P. malariae showed the highest Reactivity Index alone. This study validates the use of the multiplex assay to measure naturally acquired IgG antibodies against Plasmodium MSP1 proteins and demonstrate that these proteins are important tools for seroepidemiological surveys and could be used in malaria surveillance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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20 pages, 2122 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Mosquitoes Know No Borders: Surveillance of Potential Introduction of Aedes Species in Southern Québec, Canada

by Anne-Marie Lowe, Karl Forest-Bérard, Richard Trudel, Ernest Lo, Philippe Gamache, Matthieu Tandonnet, Serge-Olivier Kotchi, Patrick Leighton, Antonia Dibernardo, Robbin Lindsay and Antoinette Ludwig

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080998 - 7 Aug 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3723

Abstract

Current climatic conditions limit the distribution of Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse, Diptera: Culicidae) in the north, but predictive climate models suggest this species could establish itself in southern Canada by 2040. A vector of chikungunya, dengue, yellow fever, Zika and West [...] Read more.

Current climatic conditions limit the distribution of Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse, Diptera: Culicidae) in the north, but predictive climate models suggest this species could establish itself in southern Canada by 2040. A vector of chikungunya, dengue, yellow fever, Zika and West Nile viruses, the Ae. Albopictus has been detected in Windsor, Ontario since 2016. Given the potential public health implications, and knowing that Aedes spp. can easily be introduced by ground transportation, this study aimed to determine if specimens could be detected, using an adequate methodology, in southern Québec. Mosquitoes were sampled in 2016 and 2017 along the main roads connecting Canada and the U.S., using Biogent traps (Sentinel-2, Gravide Aedes traps) and ovitraps. Overall, 24 mosquito spp. were captured, excluding Ae. Albopictus, but detecting one Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (Skuse) specimen (laid eggs). The most frequent species among captured adults were Ochlerotatus triseriatus, Culex pipiens complex, and Ochlerotatus japonicus (31.0%, 26.0%, and 17.3%, respectively). The present study adds to the increasing number of studies reporting on the range expansions of these mosquito species, and suggests that ongoing monitoring, using multiple capture techniques targeting a wide range of species, may provide useful information to public health with respect to the growing risk of emerging mosquito-borne diseases in southern Canada. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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13 pages, 1257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Active Circulation of Madariaga Virus, a Member of the Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Complex, in Northeast Brazil

by Laura H. V. G. Gil, Tereza Magalhaes, Beatriz S. A. S. Santos, Livia V. Oliveira, Edmilson F. Oliveira-Filho, João L. R. Cunha, Ana L. S. Fraiha, Brenda M. M. Rocha, Barbara C. Longo, Roselene Ecco, Guilherme C. Faria, Ronaldo Furtini, Safira R. M. Drumond, Renata P. A. Maranhão, Zélia I. P. Lobato, Maria Isabel M. C. Guedes, Raffaella B. C. Teixeira and Erica A. Costa

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080983 - 3 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3898

Abstract

Madariaga virus (MADV) is a member of the eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) complex that circulates in Central and South America. It is a zoonotic, mosquito-borne pathogen, belonging to the family Togaviridae. Disturbances in the natural transmission cycle of this virus result [...] Read more.

Madariaga virus (MADV) is a member of the eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) complex that circulates in Central and South America. It is a zoonotic, mosquito-borne pathogen, belonging to the family Togaviridae. Disturbances in the natural transmission cycle of this virus result in outbreaks in equines and humans, leading to high case fatality in the former and acute febrile illness or neurological disease in the latter. Although a considerable amount of knowledge exists on the eco-epidemiology of North American EEEV strains, little is known about MADV. In Brazil, the most recent isolations of MADV occurred in 2009 in the States of Paraíba and Ceará, northeast Brazil. Because of that, health authorities have recommended vaccination of animals in these regions. However, in 2019 an equine encephalitis outbreak was reported in a municipality in Ceará. Here, we present the isolation of MADV from two horses that died in this outbreak. The full-length genome of these viruses was sequenced, and phylogenetic analyses performed. Pathological findings from postmortem examination are also discussed. We conclude that MADV is actively circulating in northeast Brazil despite vaccination programs, and call attention to this arbovirus that likely represents an emerging pathogen in Latin America. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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16 pages, 4186 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Pilot Study on the Microbiome of Amblyomma hebraeum Tick Stages Infected and Non-Infected with Rickettsia africae

by Dalicia Kisten, Jory Brinkerhoff, Selaelo Ivy Tshilwane and Samson Mukaratirwa

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 941; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080941 - 27 Jul 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2517

Abstract

Variation in tick microbiota may affect pathogen acquisition and transmission but for many vector species, including Amblyomma hebraeum, components and determinants of the microbiome are unidentified. This pilot study aimed to determine baseline microbial community within A. hebraeum nymphs infected- and non-infected [...] Read more.

Variation in tick microbiota may affect pathogen acquisition and transmission but for many vector species, including Amblyomma hebraeum, components and determinants of the microbiome are unidentified. This pilot study aimed to determine baseline microbial community within A. hebraeum nymphs infected- and non-infected with Rickettsia africae from the environment, and within adult ticks infected- and non-infected with R. africae collected from cattle sampled from two locations in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Adult A. hebraeum ticks (N = 13) and A. hebraeum nymph (N = 15) preliminary screened for R. africae were randomly selected and subjected to Illumina sequencing targeting the v3–v4 hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene. No significant difference in microbial community composition, as well as rarefied OTU richness and diversity were detected between adults and nymphs. Nymphs showed a higher richness of bacterial taxa indicating blood-feeding could have resulted in loss of microbial diversity during the moulting stage from nymph to adult. Core OTUs that were in at least 50% of nymphs and adults negative and positive for Rickettsia at 1% minimum relative abundance were Rickettsia, Coxiella and Ruminococcaceae UCG-005 with a single genus Arsenophonus occurring only in nymphs negative for Rickettsia. Ehrlichia spp. was present in only four nymphal ticks positive for Rickettsia. Interestingly, Rickettsia aeschlimannii was found in one nymph and one adult, indicating the first ever detection of the species in A. hebraeum. Furthermore, A. hebraeum harboured a Coxiella-like endosymbiont, which should be investigated further as Coxiella may affect the viability and transmission of other organisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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13 pages, 1343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Molecular Identification of Plasmodium falciparum from Captive Non-Human Primates in the Western Amazon Ecuador

by Gabriel Alberto Carrillo Bilbao, Juan-Carlos Navarro, Mutien-Marie Garigliany, Sarah Martin-Solano, Elizabeth Minda, Washington Benítez-Ortiz and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 791; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070791 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3379

Abstract

Background: Malaria is a disease caused by hemoparasites of the Plasmodium genus. Non-human primates (NHP) are hosts of Plasmodium sp. around the world. Several studies have demonstrated that Plasmodium sp. emerged from Africa. However, little information is currently available about Plasmodium falciparum in [...] Read more.

Background: Malaria is a disease caused by hemoparasites of the Plasmodium genus. Non-human primates (NHP) are hosts of Plasmodium sp. around the world. Several studies have demonstrated that Plasmodium sp. emerged from Africa. However, little information is currently available about Plasmodium falciparum in the neotropical NHP and even less in Ecuador. Indeed, the objective of our study was to identify by molecular phylogenetic analyses the Plasmodium species associated with NHP from the Western Amazon region of Ecuador, and to design a molecular taxonomy protocol to use in the NHP disease ecology. Methods: We extracted DNA from faecal samples (n = 26) from nine species of captive (n = 19) and free-ranging (n = 7) NHP, collected from 2011 to 2019 in the Western Amazon region of Ecuador. Results: Using a pan-Plasmodium PCR, we obtained one positive sample from an adult female Leontocebus lagonotus. A maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis showed that this sequence unequivocally clustered with Plasmodium falciparum. Conclusions: The identification of Plasmodium sp. in NHP of the Ecuadorian Amazon would be essential to identify their role as potential zoonotic reservoirs, and it is also important to identify their origin in wildlife and their transmission in captive NHP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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10 pages, 2142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Novel Zoonotic Pathogen, Anaplasma capra, Infects Human Erythrocytes, HL-60, and TF-1 Cells In Vitro

by Yongshuai Peng, Chenyang Lu, Yaqun Yan, Jinxing Song, Zhiyang Pei, Pihong Gong, Rongjun Wang, Longxian Zhang, Fuchun Jian and Changshen Ning

Pathogens 2021, 10(5), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10050600 - 14 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3031

Abstract

Anaplasma capra, a species of the family Anaplasmataceae, is zoonotic tick-borne obligate intracellular bacteria. There have been no reports of human infection with this pathogen since 2015. Therefore, the zoonotic characteristics of A. capra need to be further studied. To verify the [...] Read more.

Anaplasma capra, a species of the family Anaplasmataceae, is zoonotic tick-borne obligate intracellular bacteria. There have been no reports of human infection with this pathogen since 2015. Therefore, the zoonotic characteristics of A. capra need to be further studied. To verify the ability of A. capra to infect human cells, A. capra were inoculated in human erythrocytes, HL-60, and TF-1 cell lines in vitro. Cell smears were taken after inoculation, using Giemsa staining, transmission electron microscope (TEM), chromogenic in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry for detection. In the Giemsa staining, many dark colored corpuscles or purple granules were seen in the inoculated erythrocytes, HL-60, and TF-1 cells. The results of chromogenic in situ hybridization show that there were brown precipitates on the surface of most erythrocytes. Immunocytochemistry results show many dark brown vacuolar structures or corpuscles in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes, HL-60, and TF-1 cell lines. The A. capra morulae were seen in the cytoplasm of both HL-60 and TF-1 in TEM, and their diameter was about 295–518 nm. Both dense-cored (DC) and reticulate cell (RC) form morulae could be seen. This study confirmed the ability of A. capra to infect human erythrocytes, HL-60, and TF-1. This study is of profound significance in further verifying the zoonotic characteristics of the pathogen and for establishing an in vitro cultivation model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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13 pages, 743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Assessment of the Entry through Mechanical Transport in Aircraft of Rift Valley Fever Virus-Infected Mosquitoes into Previously Unaffected Areas

by Maria-Eleni Filippitzi and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(5), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10050541 - 30 Apr 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1830

Abstract

(1): Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a zoonotic disease of significant international health concern and considered as an emerging risk to Europe, where no RVF outbreaks in humans or animals have been reported so far. (2): Using a stochastic approach, we estimated the [...] Read more.

(1): Rift Valley Fever (RVF) is a zoonotic disease of significant international health concern and considered as an emerging risk to Europe, where no RVF outbreaks in humans or animals have been reported so far. (2): Using a stochastic approach, we estimated the risk of RVF virus (RVFV) introduction during the period of May to October (the period when mosquito populations, including RVFV potential vectors, are present in European countries), into previously unaffected areas (e.g., United Kingdom, UK) via virus-carrying vectors traveling in commercial aircraft from RVF-affected countries (e.g., East Africa); (3): On average N = 68 (95% CI: 0–337), RVF-virus-infected mosquitoes are estimated to be mechanically transported by planes (with N = 0 as most likely), in direct flights from RVF-affected East African countries to the UK, between May and October. This estimate is considered as low but not negligible. The model developed should be easily scaled up to other European countries by amending appropriately country-specific variables (e.g., number of flights between countries) in order to map the areas/airports of higher risk and inform risk management per country accordingly and to adopt risk-mitigation measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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32 pages, 1963 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Determining the Implementation of Measures Aimed at Preventing Zoonotic Diseases in Veterinary Practices

by Véronique Renault, Sébastien Fontaine and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(4), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10040436 - 6 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2799

Abstract

Background: Zoonoses prevention relies mainly on the implementation of different biosecurity measures. This study aimed to assess the level of implementation of biosecurity measures by veterinary practitioners and students and to identify the possible behaviour change determinants. Methods: The data was collected through [...] Read more.

Background: Zoonoses prevention relies mainly on the implementation of different biosecurity measures. This study aimed to assess the level of implementation of biosecurity measures by veterinary practitioners and students and to identify the possible behaviour change determinants. Methods: The data was collected through a cross-sectional survey (N = 382). Statistical analyses were implemented based on the Health Belief Model to identify the possible determinant of the behaviours and the explanatory variables of the perceptions. Results: The survey showed a good level of implementation of the biosecurity measures (median of 81%). The implementation was associated with a higher perception of the zoonoses’ susceptibility and the measures’ benefits, and with a lower perception of the zoonoses’ severity. The study also revealed that the decision to implement a measure was mainly taken on a case-by-case basis depending on the perceived risk of exposure related to a specific context or intervention. Conclusion: The main determining factors identified for the implementation of biosecurity measures (BSMs) were the risk susceptibility and the benefits of the biosecurity measures, which could be influenced by evidence-based communication. The methodology developed can be applied regularly and in other countries to better capture these changes in perceptions over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

42 pages, 3944 KiB

Open AccessReview

Japanese Encephalitis Virus Interaction with Mosquitoes: A Review of Vector Competence, Vector Capacity and Mosquito Immunity

by Claudia Van den Eynde, Charlotte Sohier, Severine Matthijs and Nick De Regge

Pathogens 2022, 11(3), 317; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens11030317 - 3 Mar 2022

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 6952

Abstract

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic flavivirus and a major cause of human viral encephalitis in Asia. We provide an overview of the knowledge on vector competence, vector capacity, and immunity of mosquitoes in relation to JEV. JEV has so far [...] Read more.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic flavivirus and a major cause of human viral encephalitis in Asia. We provide an overview of the knowledge on vector competence, vector capacity, and immunity of mosquitoes in relation to JEV. JEV has so far been detected in more than 30 mosquito species. This does not necessarily mean that these species contribute to JEV transmission under field conditions. Therefore, vector capacity, which considers vector competence, as well as environmental, behavioral, cellular, and biochemical variables, needs to be taken into account. Currently, 17 species can be considered as confirmed vectors for JEV and 10 other species as potential vectors. Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex annulirostris are considered primary JEV vectors in endemic regions. Culex pipiens and Aedes japonicus could be considered as potentially important vectors in the case of JEV introduction in new regions. Vector competence is determined by various factors, including vector immunity. The available knowledge on physical and physiological barriers, molecular pathways, antimicrobial peptides, and microbiome is discussed in detail. This review highlights that much remains to be studied about vector immunity against JEV in order to identify novel strategies to reduce JEV transmission by mosquitoes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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21 pages, 665 KiB

Open AccessReview

Biosecurity at Cattle Farms: Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats

by Véronique Renault, Marie-France Humblet, Phuong N. Pham and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(10), 1315; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101315 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5196

Abstract

Biosecurity is a key component of any animal and public health strategy and disease prevention and control programs. This study reviewed the main findings of different studies implemented from 2015 to 2021 to analyse the biosecurity situation at Belgian cattle farms, including attitudes [...] Read more.

Biosecurity is a key component of any animal and public health strategy and disease prevention and control programs. This study reviewed the main findings of different studies implemented from 2015 to 2021 to analyse the biosecurity situation at Belgian cattle farms, including attitudes and behaviours of cattle farmers and rural veterinarians regarding biosecurity measures. Specifically, the objective was to perform a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis of the situation and propose a new conceptual framework improving the level of biosecurity in the cattle sector. Biosecurity in cattle farming remains relatively low and faces multiple challenges. Its future improvement requires the different stakeholders to agree on shared goals and objectives and to carefully consider animal, public and environmental health, as well as socioeconomic and cultural factors. Further cost efficiency studies are required to identify the most important biosecurity measures and convince the stakeholders of their utility and benefits. Cattle farmers rely mainly on rural veterinarians for technical guidance and consider them as trustful informants. To be more effective in promoting these good practices, rural veterinarians need a proper guidance from the authorities, a proper training on biosecurity and communication, as well as an enabling environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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35 pages, 1780 KiB

Open AccessReview

Zoonotic Blood-Borne Pathogens in Non-Human Primates in the Neotropical Region: A Systematic Review

by Gabriel Carrillo-Bilbao, Sarah Martin-Solano and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10081009 - 10 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6491

Abstract

Background: Understanding which non-human primates (NHPs) act as a wild reservoir for blood-borne pathogens will allow us to better understand the ecology of diseases and the role of NHPs in the emergence of human diseases in Ecuador, a small country in South [...] Read more.

Background: Understanding which non-human primates (NHPs) act as a wild reservoir for blood-borne pathogens will allow us to better understand the ecology of diseases and the role of NHPs in the emergence of human diseases in Ecuador, a small country in South America that lacks information on most of these pathogens. Methods and principal findings: A systematic review was carried out using PRISMA guidelines from 1927 until 2019 about blood-borne pathogens present in NHPs of the Neotropical region (i.e., South America and Middle America). Results: A total of 127 publications were found in several databases. We found in 25 genera (132 species) of NHPs a total of 56 blood-borne pathogens in 197 records where Protozoa has the highest number of records in neotropical NHPs (n = 128) compared to bacteria (n = 12) and viruses (n = 57). Plasmodium brasilianum and Trypanosoma cruzi are the most recorded protozoa in NHP. The neotropical primate genus with the highest number of blood-borne pathogens recorded is Alouatta sp. (n = 32). The use of non-invasive samples for neotropical NHPs remains poor in a group where several species are endangered or threatened. A combination of serological and molecular techniques is common when detecting blood-borne pathogens. Socioecological and ecological risk factors facilitate the transmission of these parasites. Finally, a large number of countries remain unsurveyed, such as Ecuador, which can be of public health importance. Conclusions and significance: NHPs are potential reservoirs of a large number of blood-borne pathogens. In Ecuador, research activities should be focused on bacteria and viruses, where there is a gap of information for neotropical NHPs, in order to implement surveillance programs with regular and effective monitoring protocols adapted to NHPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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19 pages, 886 KiB

Open AccessReview

Critical Systematic Review of Zoonoses and Transboundary Animal Diseases’ Prioritization in Africa

by Serge Eugene Mpouam, Jean Pierre Kilekoung Mingoas, Mohamed Moctar Mouliom Mouiche, Jean Marc Kameni Feussom and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(8), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10080976 - 3 Aug 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5461

Abstract

Background: Disease prioritization aims to enhance resource use efficiency concerning human and animal health systems’ preparedness and response to the most important problems for the optimization of beneficial outcomes. In sub-Sahara Africa (SSA), several prioritizations of zoonoses and transboundary animal diseases (TADs) have [...] Read more.

Background: Disease prioritization aims to enhance resource use efficiency concerning human and animal health systems’ preparedness and response to the most important problems for the optimization of beneficial outcomes. In sub-Sahara Africa (SSA), several prioritizations of zoonoses and transboundary animal diseases (TADs) have been implemented at different scales to characterize potential disease impacts. Method and principal findings: In this systematic review, we analyze the methodologies used, outcomes, and their relevance by discussing criteria required to align decision-makers’ perceptions of impacts to those of other stakeholders for different prioritization in SSA. In general, the sectorial representativeness of stakeholders for processes implemented with the support of international partners showed slight differences with the absence of local stakeholders. Whatever the tool prioritized, zoonoses were similar in general because of the structured nature of those tools in assessing decision-makers’ preferences through value trade-offs between criteria while ensuring transparency and reproducibility. However, by involving field practitioners and farmers, there were different outcomes with processes concerning only decision makers and experts who were more sensitive to infectious TADs, while the former raised parasitic disease constraints. In this context, multicriteria decision analysis-based zoonoses and TADs prioritizations involving a balanced participation of stakeholders might contribute to bridging these divergences, whatever the scale. Conclusion and significance: Prioritization processes were important steps toward building and harmonizing technical laboratory and surveillance networks to coordinate projects to address priority zoonoses and TADs at the country and/or sub-regional level. Those processes should be enhanced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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Other

Jump to: Research, Review

31 pages, 11282 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Models for Studying the Distribution of Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases in Animals: A Systematic Review and a Meta-Analysis with a Focus on Africa

by Olivier M. Zannou, Achille S. Ouedraogo, Abel S. Biguezoton, Emmanuel Abatih, Marco Coral-Almeida, Souaïbou Farougou, Kouassi Patrick Yao, Laetitia Lempereur and Claude Saegerman

Pathogens 2021, 10(7), 893; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070893 - 14 Jul 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5847

Abstract

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBD) are constraints to the development of livestock and induce potential human health problems. The worldwide distribution of ticks is not homogenous. Some places are ecologically suitable for ticks but they are not introduced in these areas yet. The [...] Read more.

Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBD) are constraints to the development of livestock and induce potential human health problems. The worldwide distribution of ticks is not homogenous. Some places are ecologically suitable for ticks but they are not introduced in these areas yet. The absence or low density of hosts is a factor affecting the dissemination of the parasite. To understand the process of introduction and spread of TTBD in different areas, and forecast their presence, scientists developed different models (e.g., predictive models and explicative models). This study aimed to identify models developed by researchers to analyze the TTBD distribution and to assess the performance of these various models with a meta-analysis. A literature search was implemented with PRISMA protocol in two online databases (Scopus and PubMed). The selected articles were classified according to country, type of models and the objective of the modeling. Sensitivity, specificity and accuracy available data of these models were used to evaluate their performance using a meta-analysis. One hundred studies were identified in which seven tick genera were modeled, with Ixodes the most frequently modeled. Additionally, 13 genera of tick-borne pathogens were also modeled, with Borrelia the most frequently modeled. Twenty-three different models were identified and the most frequently used are the generalized linear model representing 26.67% and the maximum entropy model representing 24.17%. A focus on TTBD modeling in Africa showed that, respectively, genus Rhipicephalus and Theileria parva were the most modeled. A meta-analysis on the quality of 20 models revealed that maximum entropy, linear discriminant analysis, and the ecological niche factor analysis models had, respectively, the highest sensitivity, specificity, and area under the curve effect size among all the selected models. Modeling TTBD is highly relevant for predicting their distribution and preventing their adverse effect on animal and human health and the economy. Related results of such analyses are useful to build prevention and/or control programs by veterinary and public health authorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases)

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