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18 pages, 1065 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analogy in Terms of Identity, Equivalence, Similarity, and Their Cryptomorphs

by Marcin J. Schroeder

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020032 - 12 Jun 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4473

Abstract

Analogy belongs to the class of concepts notorious for a variety of definitions generating continuing disputes about their preferred understanding. Analogy is typically defined by or at least associated with similarity, but as long as similarity remains undefined this association does not eliminate [...] Read more.

Analogy belongs to the class of concepts notorious for a variety of definitions generating continuing disputes about their preferred understanding. Analogy is typically defined by or at least associated with similarity, but as long as similarity remains undefined this association does not eliminate ambiguity. In this paper, analogy is considered synonymous with a slightly generalized mathematical concept of similarity which under the name of tolerance relation has been the subject of extensive studies over several decades. In this approach, analogy can be mathematically formalized in terms of the sequence of binary relations of increased generality, from the identity, equivalence, tolerance, to weak tolerance relations. Each of these relations has cryptomorphic presentations relevant to the study of analogy. The formalism requires only two assumptions which are satisfied in all of the earlier attempts to formulate adequate definitions which met expectations of the intuitive use of the word analogy in general contexts. The mathematical formalism presented here permits theoretical analysis of analogy in the contrasting comparison with abstraction, showing its higher level of complexity, providing a precise methodology for its study and informing philosophical reflection. Also, arguments are presented for the legitimate expectation that better understanding of analogy can help mathematics in establishing a unified and universal concept of a structure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

23 pages, 2254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analogy and Communication

by Enrique Dussel

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020031 - 5 Jun 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3442

Abstract

Analogy makes possible the dialogue between people. This dialogue, at the intercultural level and from distinct ontological comprehensions of life, cannot be achieved from a univocal pretension of meaning. Analogy permits, especially at the rhetoric level of Political Philosophy, an adequate interpretation of [...] Read more.

Analogy makes possible the dialogue between people. This dialogue, at the intercultural level and from distinct ontological comprehensions of life, cannot be achieved from a univocal pretension of meaning. Analogy permits, especially at the rhetoric level of Political Philosophy, an adequate interpretation of such complex concepts as people, state or rights. A semantics of these concepts by similarity allows us to advance in the process towards a better interpretation of the other interlocutor’s expression though never reaching identity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

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7 pages, 199 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Logical Problems in Analysis of Analogy

by Jan Woleński

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020029 - 3 Jun 2019

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Abstract

The paper discusses some logical problems concerning analogy. The traditional understanding of analogy as proportion (proportion) is inadequate, at least if proportionality is taken in mathematical sense. This situation is clear if we considered various special cases of analogy for instance analogia legis [...] Read more.

The paper discusses some logical problems concerning analogy. The traditional understanding of analogy as proportion (proportion) is inadequate, at least if proportionality is taken in mathematical sense. This situation is clear if we considered various special cases of analogy for instance analogia legis and analogia juris. Since analogy assumes a similarity of analogata (items being or investigated) as analogical, a general analysis of analogical relation must begin with the concept of similarity. It can be defined as possessing a common property. This idea is formalized by devices borrowed from logic and set theory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

6 pages, 169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Analogy in the Development of Intercultural Competence

by Yuko Abe

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020025 - 22 May 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

Analogy is defined in many different ways. In this paper it is understood as a process in which the familiar structure of a direct experience in one situation is used to make conclusions regarding an expected experience within another structure. This process is [...] Read more.

Analogy is defined in many different ways. In this paper it is understood as a process in which the familiar structure of a direct experience in one situation is used to make conclusions regarding an expected experience within another structure. This process is based on the perceived similarity of the structures, not on rational, theoretical analysis of the relations between their components and the mechanisms of their interactions. The use of analogy relies on the engagement of intuitive recognition of the structural similarity between different instances of experience. The engagement of intuition does not preclude rational study and the development of strategies for using analogy, as part of this work focuses on rational learning about our own experience. Analogy plays two very different roles in this paper; as the main subject of this study, which focuses on the development of intercultural competence, and as a methodological instrument for carrying out and sharing the results of this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

13 pages, 235 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Art in the Face of Evil: Analogies between the Conceptions of Two French Resistance Fighters

by Estelle Carciofi

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020018 - 22 Apr 2019

Viewed by 3302

Abstract

I present two conceptions of the human being and art: that of Renaud—the main fictional character of a short novel written by Vercors—and that of Albert Camus. Although these French resistance fighters experienced the same war, the same terrible events surprisingly lead them [...] Read more.

I present two conceptions of the human being and art: that of Renaud—the main fictional character of a short novel written by Vercors—and that of Albert Camus. Although these French resistance fighters experienced the same war, the same terrible events surprisingly lead them to opposite extremes: the first one to despair and the rejection of art perceived as an unbearable lie, the second one to hope and to artistic commitment. Analogical reasoning allows us to show both the similarities and the distinctions between these two men or, more precisely, between what they tell us about human beings and art. Thanks to this, it is easier to understand the essential role the artist plays and his duty towards humankind. Moreover, in the work of Albert Camus, we will see that revolt is—and must be—connected to love. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

12 pages, 5653 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Logical Analogies: Interpretations, Oppositions, and Probabilism

by Walter Redmond

Philosophies 2019, 4(2), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4020013 - 2 Apr 2019

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3033

Abstract

I present two logical systems to show the “analogy of proportionality” common to several interpretations: modality (necessity and possibility), quantification, truth-functional relations, moral attitudes (deontic logic), states of knowledge (epistemic logic), and states of belief (doxastic logic). To display the two underlying analogical [...] Read more.

I present two logical systems to show the “analogy of proportionality” common to several interpretations: modality (necessity and possibility), quantification, truth-functional relations, moral attitudes (deontic logic), states of knowledge (epistemic logic), and states of belief (doxastic logic). To display the two underlying analogical relations, I call upon the originally Scholastic convention, recently put to use again, of using squares, hexagons, and octagons “of opposition”. A combined epistemic–deontic logic happens to be found in the traditional “probabilist” theory of the “good conscience”, and I shall then briefly explain how this is so. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

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12 pages, 3631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analogy and Visual Content: The Logica memorativa of Thomas Murner

by Juan Manuel Campos Benítez

Philosophies 2019, 4(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4010002 - 27 Dec 2018

Viewed by 4765

Abstract

In this article, after some thoughts on medieval logic and teaching, we present Thomas Murner’s text, Logica memorativa, showing some of his mnemonic strategies for the student to learn logic quickly. Murner offers a type of “flash cards” that illustrate much of [...] Read more.

In this article, after some thoughts on medieval logic and teaching, we present Thomas Murner’s text, Logica memorativa, showing some of his mnemonic strategies for the student to learn logic quickly. Murner offers a type of “flash cards” that illustrate much of the teaching of logic at the beginning of the sixteenth century. The first impression is visual, because the cards do not contain words that illustrate their content. Murner’s exposition rests on analogies between logic themes that are explained and the visual images presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

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15 pages, 912 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Problem of Context for Similarity: An Insight from Analogical Cognition

by Pauline Armary, Jérôme Dokic and Emmanuel Sander

Philosophies 2018, 3(4), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies3040039 - 21 Nov 2018

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4045

Abstract

Similarity is central for the definition of concepts in several theories in cognitive psychology. However, similarity encounters several problems which were emphasized by Goodman in 1972. At the end of his article, Goodman banishes similarity from any serious philosophical or scientific investigations. If [...] Read more.

Similarity is central for the definition of concepts in several theories in cognitive psychology. However, similarity encounters several problems which were emphasized by Goodman in 1972. At the end of his article, Goodman banishes similarity from any serious philosophical or scientific investigations. If Goodman is right, theories of concepts based on similarity encounter a huge problem and should be revised entirely. In this paper, we would like to analyze the notion of similarity with some insight from psychological works on analogical cognition. Analogical cognition compares two situations or objects in order to find similarities between them. In doing so, the analogical process sorts the different features of the two situations or objects and determines the most important ones. The analogical process is also highly sensitive to context. Context-sensitivity is desirable at some level, but it is also problematic as it leads to a computational explosion. To answer this problem, we would like to consider salience as a possible heuristic in the analogical process. We will distinguish three forms of salience: Sensory, categorical, and operational. By taking salience into account, we can introduce a shortcut into the computation of similarity and circumvent computational explosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

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9 pages, 232 KiB

Open AccessPerspective

An Evo-Devo Perspective on Analogy in Biology

by Alessandro Minelli

Philosophies 2019, 4(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies4010005 - 11 Jan 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4010

Abstract

To explain the amazing morphological and biomechanical analogy between two distantly related vertebrates as are a dolphin and a shark, an explanation exclusively framed in terms of adaptation (i.e., in terms of the Darwinian survival of the fittest) is far from satisfactory. The [...] Read more.

To explain the amazing morphological and biomechanical analogy between two distantly related vertebrates as are a dolphin and a shark, an explanation exclusively framed in terms of adaptation (i.e., in terms of the Darwinian survival of the fittest) is far from satisfactory. The same is true, of course, of any other comparison between structurally similar, but phylogenetically unrelated organisms. A purely evolutionary argument does not throw any light on how the developmental processes of their ancestors could eventually evolve in such a way as to eventually produce these peculiar phenotypes (the arrival of the fittest). How does Nature play with animal and plant form? To address the issue of the evolution of possible forms, we cannot ignore that these are products of development. This invites adopting the integrated perspective, currently known as evolutionary developmental biology, or evo-devo. Paths through the maze of living forms are not satisfactorily explained in terms of pure geometrical transformations or of the adaptive value of the phenotypes eventually produced. The emergence of form is largely dependent on the intrinsic evolvability of the developmental processes that translate the genotype into phenotypes. As a consequence, development makes analogous structures more likely to evolve than a pure adaptationist argument would ever suggest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Philosophies on Analogy)

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