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Processes
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Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability
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Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Sustainable Processes".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2025 | Viewed by 10244

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Isabel Cansado

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Guest Editor
Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, Rua Romão Ramalho, nº 59, University of Évora, 7000-671 Évora, Portugal
Interests: preparation, characterization, modification, regeneration and application of carbon materials; the treatment of gaseous and liquid effluents, aiming the environmental improvement; through the valorization of a diversity of solid by-products, in a circular economy perspective
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Silvia Roman Suero

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Guest Editor
Department of Applied Physics, University of Extremadura, Avda. de Elvas s/n, 06006 Badajoz, Spain
Interests: biomass; waste; thermochemical processing; activated carbons; adsorption; pyrolysis; HTC; combustion
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Paulo Alexandre Mira Mourão

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Guest Editor
Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, Rua Romão Ramalho, nº 59, University of Évora, 7000-671 Évora, Portugal
Interests: preparation, characterisation, development, and application of porous materials; with the focus on the recovery and valorisation of different raw materials and waste; from natural and/or synthetic sources; by its transformation into adsorbents with potential application in the liquid and gas phases; guided by a circular economy perspective
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Suhas

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Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry, Gurukula Kangri (Deemed to Be University), Haridwar 249404, India
Interests: development of adsorbents especially activated carbons and low cost adsorbents; adsorption; biosorption; hydrothermal treatment; energy storage (using supercapacitors, applications of electroanalytical methods in particular cyclic voltametry and amperometry for testing of capacitors); nano materials; emerging contaminants; removal of pollutants and water treatment
Dr. José Castanheiro

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Guest Editor
Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, Rua Romão Ramalho, nº 59, University of Évora, 7000-671 Évora, Portugal
Interests: activated carbon; adsorbent; wastewater treatment; catalysis and circular economy

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Today, the demand for better living conditions has led, among other things, to increased food production and drug consumption. The increase in food production has caused the excessive use of pesticides and veterinary products, leading to the strong contamination of soils and water resources.

A major concern of public authorities and the general public is related to the simultaneous presence of chemical and biological contamination in water. In fact, the proper management and treatment of wastewater is required before it is ejected into aqueous media or used for other purposes. Over the last few decades, adsorption, using a diversity of adsorbents but with an emphasis on the use of activated carbon, has been considered one of the most promising techniques for wastewater treatment.

This Special Issue aims to collect studies concerning the preparation methods, characterization, modification, regeneration, and application of activated carbon in water treatments. Contributions (original research papers and review articles) will encompass the production of activated carbons from new precursors, such as biomass or synthetic materials, as well as their applications regarding drinking and wastewater treatment.

Dr. Isabel Cansado
Dr. Silvia Roman Suero
Dr. Paulo Alexandre Mira Mourão
Dr. Suhas
Dr. José Castanheiro
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • activated carbon
  • pesticides
  • pharmaceutical products
  • metals
  • biomass
  • wastewater treatment
  • regeneration
  • circular economy

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 4054 KiB  
Article
Analysis and Simulation of Adsorption Efficiency of Herbicides Diuron and Linuron on Activated Carbon from Spent Coffee Beans
by Luiz Eduardo Zani de Moraes, Felipe Augusto Olivo Marcoti, Marco Antônio Naves Lucio, Bianca Caroline da Silva Rocha, Lucas Bonfim Rocha, Adriano Lopes Romero, Evandro Bona, Ana Paula Peron and Osvaldo Valarini Junior
Processes 2024, 12(9), 1952; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12091952 - 11 Sep 2024
Viewed by 748
Abstract
Phenyl urea herbicides such as diuron and linuron are commonly used in agriculture to eliminate weeds. Their uncontrolled use can cause environmental problems. In this study, the adsorption of these herbicides was evaluated using activated carbon from coffee grounds, activated with zinc chloride [...] Read more.
Phenyl urea herbicides such as diuron and linuron are commonly used in agriculture to eliminate weeds. Their uncontrolled use can cause environmental problems. In this study, the adsorption of these herbicides was evaluated using activated carbon from coffee grounds, activated with zinc chloride (AC-ZnCl2, 100% purity), nitric acid (AC-HNO3, 65% purity), and commercially activated (AC-C) carbon for comparison purposes. The spent coffee grounds were transformed into activated carbon through the calcination process. The highest removal efficiency for diuron 40 mg∙L−1 and linuron 31 mg∙L−1 was obtained using the ZnCl2-activated adsorbent, being 100% and 45%, respectively. The best pH range was between 4 and 6. Adsorption kinetic studies showed that pseudo-first and second-order models fit the experimental data, with the adsorption rate increasing rapidly within 60 min for the concentrations tested. Adsorption isotherms indicated that the Langmuir model provided the best fit for diuron, while the Freundlich model was more appropriate for linuron. The efficiency of the adsorption process using activated carbon (AC) was confirmed by the toxicity analysis of diuron and linuron solutions before and after adsorption with AC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability)
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15 pages, 1224 KiB  
Article
Evaluation and Simulation of the Adsorption Capacity of Octocrylene Sunscreen on Commercial Carbon and Biochar from Spent Coffee Beans
by Sandra Andreola Franco da Rocha, Bianca Caroline da Silva Rocha, Luiz Eduardo Zani de Moraes, João Marcos Pires Villaça, Diane Scapin, Diego Espirito Santo, Regiane da Silva Gonzalez, Osvaldo Valarini Junior and Ana Paula Peron
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1249; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061249 - 18 Jun 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 738
Abstract
The emerging pollutant octocrylene is not efficiently removed from effluents by conventional treatment and is recurrently found in rivers. This study evaluated the adsorption of octocrylene using commercial carbon and biochar from spent coffee grounds activated with ZnCl2. The two adsorbents [...] Read more.
The emerging pollutant octocrylene is not efficiently removed from effluents by conventional treatment and is recurrently found in rivers. This study evaluated the adsorption of octocrylene using commercial carbon and biochar from spent coffee grounds activated with ZnCl2. The two adsorbents had an efficiency of approximately 100% in pollutant removal throughout the experimental design. The kinetics and equilibrium isotherms showed a good correlation with the experimental data. The kinetics showed adsorption of the contaminant in 40 min for both adsorbents. The model equilibrium isotherms with the best fit and adsorption capacity was Langmuir for biochar, with a capacity of 37.822 ± 0.005 µg∙mg−1 compared to 33.602 ± 0.202 µg∙mg−1 for commercial carbon. Furthermore, a toxicity analysis of a 600 µg∙L−1 octocrylene solution was carried out before and after adsorption with the two charcoals separately, using Allium cepa roots. Before adsorption, the solution was phytotoxic and cytogenotoxic. After adsorption, the solution obtained for each charcoal no longer caused toxicity to the roots. The charcoals tested had high removal efficiency and adsorption capacity, a condition reiterated by the toxicity results. However, biochar better represented the Langmuir model in the adsorption process when removing octocrylene from the aqueous medium. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability)
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16 pages, 1225 KiB  
Article
Removal of Paracetamol and Cu2+ from Water by Using Porous Carbons Derived from Agrowastes
by Regiane C. Ferreira, Thiago Peixoto de Araújo, Diogo Dias, Maria Bernardo, Nuno Lapa, Isabel M. Fonseca and Maria A. S. D. de Barros
Processes 2023, 11(7), 2146; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11072146 - 18 Jul 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1875
Abstract
Dende and babassu coconuts are largely used in tropical countries, namely in Brazil, for the extraction of oils from kernels. The remaining biowastes are industrially processed to produce porous carbons (PCs). PCs derived from dende and babassu biowastes and produced at an industrial [...] Read more.
Dende and babassu coconuts are largely used in tropical countries, namely in Brazil, for the extraction of oils from kernels. The remaining biowastes are industrially processed to produce porous carbons (PCs). PCs derived from dende and babassu biowastes and produced at an industrial scale have been characterized by textural, chemical, and ecotoxicological parameters. A commercial activated carbon (CC) of mineral origin has been used as a benchmarking material. Although the CC sample presented a higher surface area (SBET = 1083 m2/g), the PCs derived from the biowastes were richer in micropores (Vmicro = 0.25–0.26 cm3/g), while the CC carbon presented wider pore size distribution with a higher mesopore volume (Vmeso = 0.41 cm3/g). All the adsorbents used in this work have shown a non-acute ecotoxic behavior for the bacterium Vibrio fischeri (EC50-30 min > 99% v/v). The adsorbents have been tested for paracetamol and Cu2+ adsorption in mono- and bicomponent solutions. The uptake capacities of paracetamol (qe, 98–123 mg g−1) and Cu2+ (qe, 15–18 mg g−1) from monocomponent solutions were similar to the ones obtained in the bicomponent solutions, indicating no competition or cooperative effects but a site-specific adsorption. This finding represents an advantage for the removal of these adsorbates when present in the same solution as they can be adsorbed under similar rates as in the single systems. Paracetamol adsorption was related to micropore filling, π-π interactions, and H-bonding, whereas Cu2+ removal was attributed to the cation exchange mechanism and complexation to the hydroxyl groups at the carbons’ surface. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability)
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22 pages, 2789 KiB  
Article
Batch and Continuous Column Adsorption of p-Nitrophenol onto Activated Carbons with Different Particle Sizes
by Beatriz Ledesma, Eduardo Sabio, Carmen María González-García, Silvia Román, Maria Emilia Fernandez, Pablo Bonelli and Ana L. Cukierman
Processes 2023, 11(7), 2045; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11072045 - 8 Jul 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2167
Abstract
The study focused on investigating the solvent adsorption of p-Nitrophenol (PNP) onto activated carbons for wastewater treatment. It explored the influence of adsorbate concentration and adsorbent size on equilibrium isotherms and removal rates to develop efficient adsorption processes. The study examined adsorption isotherms [...] Read more.
The study focused on investigating the solvent adsorption of p-Nitrophenol (PNP) onto activated carbons for wastewater treatment. It explored the influence of adsorbate concentration and adsorbent size on equilibrium isotherms and removal rates to develop efficient adsorption processes. The study examined adsorption isotherms under equilibrium conditions utilizing both the Langmuir and Double-Langmuir models and the Dubinin–Radushkevich equation. Remarkably, all the models demonstrated equally excellent fitting to the experimental data. Kinetics of PNP adsorption were investigated using pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion kinetic models. This provided insights into the dominant adsorption mechanism and mass transfer phenomena, aiding the design of efficient wastewater treatment processes. Strong correlations (correlation coefficients > 0.9) were found between the models and experimental data for three types of activated carbons under batch conditions. This validation enhances the reliability and applicability of the models, supporting their practical use. The study also observed a slight increase in maximum adsorption capacity (qmax) with decreasing particle size, although there is not a significant difference: 340, 350, and 365 mg·g−1, for CB-L, CB-M, and CB-S, respectively. This insight helps in selecting appropriate activated carbon for effective PNP removal, considering both adsorption capacity and particle size. Furthermore, the analysis of PNP adsorption under dynamic conditions in fixed-bed columns highlighted the significance of inlet velocity and carbon mass in determining breakthrough time, with particle size playing a secondary role. This information aids in optimizing the design and operation of fixed-bed adsorption systems for efficient PNP removal. In summary, this study’s significant contributions lie in enhancing our understanding of PNP adsorption in wastewater treatment. By investigating equilibrium isotherms, kinetics, and mass transfer phenomena, it provides validated models, insights into adsorption capacity and particle size, and practical guidance for dynamic adsorption systems. These findings contribute to the development of efficient and sustainable wastewater treatment methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability)
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Review

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26 pages, 6302 KiB  
Review
Opportunities and Constraints of the Adsorption of Rare Earth Elements onto Pyrolytic Carbon-Based Materials: A Mini-Review
by Miguel Nogueira, Maria Bernardo, Márcia Ventura, Inês Matos, Filomena Pinto and Nuno Lapa
Processes 2024, 12(10), 2257; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102257 - 16 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1194
Abstract
Rare earth elements (REEs), comprising seventeen metallic elements, including lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium, are indispensable for modern technological industries due to their unique properties. However, their supply is critically risky for the European Union, with 95% of global production concentrated in China, Brazil, [...] Read more.
Rare earth elements (REEs), comprising seventeen metallic elements, including lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium, are indispensable for modern technological industries due to their unique properties. However, their supply is critically risky for the European Union, with 95% of global production concentrated in China, Brazil, Vietnam, Russia, India, and Australia. This mini-review examines the adsorption of REEs onto pyrolytic carbon-based materials as a sustainable recovery method from secondary raw materials. The review covers different types of carbon-based adsorbents used in several research works, such as activated carbon, chars, and biochar, and discusses their adsorption mechanisms and influencing factors. Comparative analyses of adsorption capacities highlight the significance of surface area and functionalization in enhancing adsorption efficiency. Despite promising results, the variability in adsorption performance due to experimental conditions and the scarcity of real-world application studies are noticed. This review underscores the need for further research using real e-waste leachates to validate the practical applicability of pyrolytic carbon-based adsorbents for REEs’ recovery, aiming for an economically and environmentally sustainable solution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability)
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24 pages, 1935 KiB  
Review
Green Adsorbents for Environmental Remediation: Synthesis Methods, Ecotoxicity, and Reusability Prospects
by Yanju Liu, Bhabananda Biswas, Masud Hassan and Ravi Naidu
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061195 - 11 Jun 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2581
Abstract
Adsorbent materials have long been used for remediating environmental contaminants. There is an increasing focus on developing sustainable adsorbent materials for long-term use in environmentally friendly and cost-effective remediation. “Green” or “eco-friendly” sorbent materials are generally prepared from renewable or recycled resources, have [...] Read more.
Adsorbent materials have long been used for remediating environmental contaminants. There is an increasing focus on developing sustainable adsorbent materials for long-term use in environmentally friendly and cost-effective remediation. “Green” or “eco-friendly” sorbent materials are generally prepared from renewable or recycled resources, have minimal toxic effects, involve synthesis processes with minor chemical or energy footprints, have high reusability, and do not contribute to additional waste or contamination. Thus, it is essential for materials to have high sorption capacity, high stability, and reusability. The literature focuses on using low-cost or waste materials to produce sorbent materials for the immobilization of contaminants from soil and water systems. The regeneration possibilities of adsorbents are used to evaluate their cost effectiveness and long-term environmental impact once they are applied at field-scale. This review evaluates sustainable sorbent materials, highlighting their green and eco-friendly qualities for a circular economy, and their contribution to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG). The synthesis techniques, ecotoxicity, and prospect of reusing adsorbents are highlighted. Further, the review provides insights for researchers and practitioners interested in developing and applying green adsorbents, including bio-based carbon, char, and fibrous materials for soil and water remediation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Activated Carbon: Contaminant Removal for Environmental Sustainability)
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