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14 pages, 756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Sinification of Buddhism: The Acceptance of the *Tattvasiddhiśāstra 成實論 and the Demise of the Chengshi School 成實學派

by Peng Zhou

Religions 2024, 15(11), 1359; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111359 - 8 Nov 2024

Viewed by 513

Abstract

The *Tattvasiddhiśāstra played an essential role in the history of Buddhism during the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589). Hitherto, the academic world has not systematically studied this treatise’s influence on the Sinification of Buddhism, specifically manifested in the emergence and demise of [...] Read more.

The *Tattvasiddhiśāstra played an essential role in the history of Buddhism during the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589). Hitherto, the academic world has not systematically studied this treatise’s influence on the Sinification of Buddhism, specifically manifested in the emergence and demise of the Chengshi School. The acceptance of the *Tattvasiddhiśāstra went through three stages. In the third stage, the Chengshi masters, who studied the *Tattvasiddhiśāstra, affirmed this treatise as part of Mahāyāna. They adopted Mahāyāna doctrines to overcome the *Tattvasiddhiśāstra’s main limitation, lacking in-depth doctrines and an imperfect understanding of emptiness. However, they had mistaken that it was nirvāṇa rather than emptiness that limited the *Tattvasiddhiśāstra. Although they omitted the final target of nirvāṇa, their approach to emptiness was still influenced by the progressive mode of the *Tattvasiddhiśāstra. This paper clarifies that the demise of the Chengshi School was due to the Chengshi masters’ overestimation of the *Tattvasiddhiśāstra and their misunderstanding of Harivarman’s intention. No matter how hard the Chengshi masters attempted to improve their understanding, the Chengshi School would have inevitably died out as the Sinification of Buddhism proceeded. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

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20 pages, 30571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Did Wu Zetian Name “卍” as “Wanzi”? A Historical Reassessment

by Lu Lu

Religions 2024, 15(11), 1349; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111349 - 6 Nov 2024

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Abstract

While scholarly works often attribute the pronunciation of “卍” as “wan” to Empress Wu Zetian in 693, associating it with the meaning “auspicious myriad virtues”, a closer examination of the history of “卍” in Chinese Buddhist translations suggests otherwise. The more accurate transliterations [...] Read more.

While scholarly works often attribute the pronunciation of “卍” as “wan” to Empress Wu Zetian in 693, associating it with the meaning “auspicious myriad virtues”, a closer examination of the history of “卍” in Chinese Buddhist translations suggests otherwise. The more accurate transliterations and translations of svastika emerged much later than the term “Wanzi” and had very limited influence. The connection between “卍” and “Wanzi” more likely appeared during the early transmission of Buddhism to China, when people used the accepted cursive form of “萬” to approximate the shape of the svastika symbol. However, as this rationale gradually became obsolete over time, the legend that “Empress Wu Zetian decreed that ‘卍’ be pronounced as ‘wan’” arose during the Song dynasty and has persisted to this day. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

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14 pages, 384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Historical Survey of Fayun Monastery (法雲寺) in Bianjing (汴京) during the Northern Song Dynasty

by Yanhong Zong

Religions 2024, 15(10), 1199; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101199 - 2 Oct 2024

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Abstract

Fayun Monastery (法雲寺), a prominent Chan Buddhist monastery in Bianjing (汴京) during the Northern Song Dynasty, thrived for about half a century under the reigns of emperors Shenzong (神宗), Zhezong (哲宗), and Huizong (徽宗). Led by four generations of abbots—Yuantong Faxiu (圓通法秀), Datong [...] Read more.

Fayun Monastery (法雲寺), a prominent Chan Buddhist monastery in Bianjing (汴京) during the Northern Song Dynasty, thrived for about half a century under the reigns of emperors Shenzong (神宗), Zhezong (哲宗), and Huizong (徽宗). Led by four generations of abbots—Yuantong Faxiu (圓通法秀), Datong Shanben (大通善本), Foguo Weibai (佛國惟白), and Fozhao Gao (佛照杲)—the monastery was esteemed by the royal family and influential in the development of the Yunmen School. This paper examines the monastery’s history through the tenures of its abbots, providing insights into the monastery’s significance in Northern Song Buddhism and its broader cultural and political context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

14 pages, 652 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Transmission and Textual Transformation of the Shisong lü 十誦律 from the 6th to 13th Centuries

by Limei Chi

Religions 2024, 15(9), 1057; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15091057 - 30 Aug 2024

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Abstract

The Shisong lü 十誦律, translated in the early 5th century, remains the only complete version of this Buddhist Vinaya text preserved to date and represents the first Vinaya text translated into Chinese. This Vinaya text introduced standardized terminology that significantly influenced subsequent translations [...] Read more.

The Shisong lü 十誦律, translated in the early 5th century, remains the only complete version of this Buddhist Vinaya text preserved to date and represents the first Vinaya text translated into Chinese. This Vinaya text introduced standardized terminology that significantly influenced subsequent translations of Vinaya texts and profoundly impacted Chinese Buddhism during the Six Dynasties period. Due to its complex translation history, the text is bifurcated into two lineages: the Northern lineage, featuring an initial 58-scroll version (without a preface), and the Southern lineage, with an expanded 61-scroll version (including a preface). This study examines the two oldest extant manuscripts of the Lüxu 律序 (Preface to the Shisong lü) from the Southern lineage—one from the Dunhuang collection currently preserved in Japan and the other from the Nara Japan. Through intensive comparisons with woodblock editions, these manuscripts from Dunhuang, and ancient Japanese manuscript Buddhist canons, this study not only traces the textual evolution of the Southern lineage of the Shisong lü from the 6th to the 13th centuries but also offers new insights into both the historical development and the relationship between these two lineages of the text. Methodologically, this paper provides inspiration for textual criticism of the Vinaya in particular and Buddhist studies in general. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

20 pages, 16729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Prolegomenon to the Visual Language of Dance in Gandhāra

by Ashwini Lakshminarayanan

Religions 2024, 15(8), 895; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080895 - 25 Jul 2024

Viewed by 802

Abstract

Pre-modern Indian subcontinent provides a treasure trove of art historical data in the form of stone sculptures and reliefs to study dance. While significant steps towards understanding the literary and visual language of dance have been made, artistic production from Gandhāra (the ancient [...] Read more.

Pre-modern Indian subcontinent provides a treasure trove of art historical data in the form of stone sculptures and reliefs to study dance. While significant steps towards understanding the literary and visual language of dance have been made, artistic production from Gandhāra (the ancient region broadly covering the northwestern part of the subcontinent) largely remains absent in scholarly discussions. Ancient Gandhāra readily lends itself to a global approach as an active participant alongside the so-called ancient Silk Roads connecting the Mediterranean regions with China. Furthermore, as part of the Buddhist pilgrimage routes, Gandhāra also developed ties with Buddhist sites located further east and participated in the spread of Buddhism to China. Within this context, this article discusses the most common dance depicted in Gandhāran art to understand how artists represented dance in the static medium. Using this dance as an illustration, this article also argues that the iconographic conventions of the Gandhāran artistic repertoire for dance are shared outside the region, notably in Kizil, which is located alongside the northern branch of the Silk Roads. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

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14 pages, 10333 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Aniruddha to Upāli—Examining the Compilation of the Sutra of the Buddha’s Mother and the Formation of Chinese Buddhist Scriptures

by Xi Li

Religions 2024, 15(7), 818; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070818 - 5 Jul 2024

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Abstract

The Sutra of the Buddha’s Mother (Fomu jing 佛母經), a Chinese Buddhist scripture, is closely linked to the Mahāmāyā Sutra (Mohe Moye jing 摩訶摩耶經). However, there is a significant difference between the two sutras regarding the narrative story of the Buddha’s [...] Read more.

The Sutra of the Buddha’s Mother (Fomu jing 佛母經), a Chinese Buddhist scripture, is closely linked to the Mahāmāyā Sutra (Mohe Moye jing 摩訶摩耶經). However, there is a significant difference between the two sutras regarding the narrative story of the Buddha’s nirvana and meeting with his mother, namely the difference in the disciple who travels to Trāyastriṃśa Heaven to inform the Buddha’s mother. The substitution of Aniruddha with Upāli could be attributed to Upāli’s inclusion in Tang dynasty commentaries on “Ānanda Asking the Buddha Four Questions,” where he is depicted as a prominent disciple in the gathering prior to the Buddha’s nirvana. This narrative preference was also reflected in the Mohe Moye jing. To a certain extent, this confusion reflects the process of ‘between translation and composition,’ or the compiling and mixing of various texts from different sutras and sources to create a new scripture in the Chinese context. In the nirvana images, which contain the inscriptions, the presence of Upāli becomes an important symbol for identifying the classical texts on which the frescoes were painted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

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16 pages, 11943 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Re-Examination of Pelliot Tibétain 1257: A Workbook for Chinese Learning Tibetan?

by Changchun Pei

Religions 2024, 15(6), 748; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060748 - 19 Jun 2024

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Abstract

Pelliot tibétain 1257, a manuscript discovered in Dunhuang and now housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, contains a Bilingual Tibetan–Chinese glossary that compiles some of the most fundamental Buddhist terminology and vocabulary excerpted from the Saṃdhi-nirmocana-sūtra. The Tibetan terms within this [...] Read more.

Pelliot tibétain 1257, a manuscript discovered in Dunhuang and now housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, contains a Bilingual Tibetan–Chinese glossary that compiles some of the most fundamental Buddhist terminology and vocabulary excerpted from the Saṃdhi-nirmocana-sūtra. The Tibetan terms within this glossary were initially completed by one person, while the Chinese terms were subsequently filled in by three individuals. This vocabulary list may have served as a workbook prepared by a Tibetan teacher for Chinese students learning Tibetan vocabulary. The workbook, with Chinese vocabulary filled in by Chinese students, remained in their possession and use thereafter. The learning of Tibetan by these Chinese individuals in Dunhuang was likely closely related to the Buddhist sutra-copying project initiated by the Tibetan king at that time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

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12 pages, 374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Making of a Monk: The Training of Śrāmaṇera (Novice Monks) in Dunhuang with a Focus on Scriptural Study

by Shoucheng Shen and Shaowei Wu

Religions 2024, 15(6), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15060635 - 22 May 2024

Viewed by 871

Abstract

Monastic life begins with the ordination of novice monks, who start their formal training at this stage. The education of a novice involves both general cultural studies and specialized Buddhist training. However, the focus during the novice stage is predominantly on Buddhist education, [...] Read more.

Monastic life begins with the ordination of novice monks, who start their formal training at this stage. The education of a novice involves both general cultural studies and specialized Buddhist training. However, the focus during the novice stage is predominantly on Buddhist education, which encompasses learning monastic discipline and studying Buddhist scriptures. The Dunhuang manuscripts offer a wealth of information, providing valuable insights into the training and education of novice monks in Dunhuang during the periods of Tibetan Occupation (787–848) and Guiyi Army (851–1036). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

13 pages, 649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sacred Resurgence: Revitalizing Buddhist Temples in Modern China

by Yifeng Liu

Religions 2024, 15(5), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15050627 - 20 May 2024

Viewed by 1733

Abstract

This paper examines the construction and maintenance of Chinese Han Buddhist temples in modern China against the backdrop of societal transformation. Initially, it analyzes the profound impact of social changes since the mid-19th century on Buddhist monasteries, including political turmoil, economic development, and [...] Read more.

This paper examines the construction and maintenance of Chinese Han Buddhist temples in modern China against the backdrop of societal transformation. Initially, it analyzes the profound impact of social changes since the mid-19th century on Buddhist monasteries, including political turmoil, economic development, and urbanization. Furthermore, the paper explores how temples were reconstructed and revitalized within this historical context, highlighting the monastic community’s unwavering commitment to protecting the Dharma and ensuring its enduring presence. Additionally, this paper also explores the role of charismatic monks in enhancing the sanctity of temples and the influence of Buddhist institutional frameworks on the dynamics of state and society. The study employs a multifaceted analysis to understand the complex interplay between temple construction, economic development, and the cultural heritage of Buddhism in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

15 pages, 725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Literacy Rate of Buddhist Sangha in the Tang Dynasty

by Shaowei Wu

Religions 2024, 15(3), 306; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030306 - 29 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1665

Abstract

The Buddhist sangha played a crucial role in ancient China, exerting significant influence on its society through religious identity and cultural knowledge. However, not all members of the monastic community were literate. The Tang Dynasty introduced an examination system that assessed monks’ proficiency [...] Read more.

The Buddhist sangha played a crucial role in ancient China, exerting significant influence on its society through religious identity and cultural knowledge. However, not all members of the monastic community were literate. The Tang Dynasty introduced an examination system that assessed monks’ proficiency in reciting Buddhist scriptures, determining their eligibility for ordination. Simultaneously, efforts to remove unqualified monks and nuns provided an opportunity to estimate the literacy rate within the monastic community. A statistical analysis of the literacy rate offers a novel perspective for understanding the evolution of Buddhism, the intricate relationship between religion and politics, and the role of the monastic community in local society during the Tang Dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Localization, Globalization and Glocalization: Paradigm Shifts in the Study of Transmission and Transformation of Buddhism in Asia and Beyond)

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