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The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation

A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2015) | Viewed by 162221

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Saskia Foerster

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany
Interests: field and imaging spectroscopy; remote sensing of soils and land degradation processes; water and land resources management
Dr. Véronique Carrere

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratoire de Planétologie et Géodynamique de Nantes, University of Nantes, 2 rue de la Houssinière, BP92208 44322 Nantes, CEDEX 3, France
Interests: field and imaging spectroscopy; extraction of physical parameters; quantitative research; application to environmental geology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Michael Rast

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
ESA-ESRIN, Via Galileo Galilei, 00044 Frascati, Italy
Interests: earth observation science strategy; earth explorer mission and science requirements; space-borne imaging spectroscopy; earth system science
Prof. Dr. Karl Staenz

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Alberta Terrestrial Imaging Centre and Department of Geography, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
Interests: applications of imaging spectroscopy and quantitative remote sensing algorithm research and development

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP), together with other imaging spectroscopy satellite missions, will be launched in the near future. EnMAP represents a milestone towards frequent, high quality hyperspectral observation of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems from space. It will enable the derivation of surface variables with an accuracy not achievable by currently available optical broadband satellite sensors and, therefore, will contribute to improving our knowledge of the complex processes and feedback mechanisms interconnecting the Earth’s various spheres, such as the atmosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.

EnMAP is destined to make a major contribution toward quantifying and modeling crucial ecosystem processes and understanding the complexities of the Earth System. More specifically, the primary goals of the mission are to investigate globally interconnected environmental processes and changes, study the diverse effects of anthropogenic impact on ecosystems, and support the management of natural resources. EnMAP will record more than 240 narrow spectral bands in a spectral range from 420 nm to 2450 nm at a ground resolution of 30 m by 30 m; EnMAP has a revisit time of 27 days (off-nadir four days) and a total image data acquisition length of 5,000 km per day. The launch of EnMAP is foreseen for 2018. Currently, a large scientific preparation program is running, which comprises of extensive airborne campaigns in different environments, the development of an EnMAP image simulator software, the development and testing of algorithms for the retrieval of diagnostic and quantitative surface parameters, and the development of  a free image processing software specifically designed for handling future hyperspectral space-borne data.

This Special Issue aims to give an overview of the EnMAP mission. It will discuss EnMAP’s goals and the scientific achievements of the preparatory phase in various applications, such as agriculture, forestry, inland and coastal waters, soils and geology, urban areas, and natural ecosystems. Authors are encouraged to submit articles that analyze the scientific potential of future EnMAP data, preferably by using simulated EnMAP data, and that exploit synergies with other satellite missions (e.g., Sentinel-2).

Authors are required to check and follow specific Instructions to Authors, see https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/165068305/Remote_Sensing-Additional_Instructions.pdf.

Dr. Saskia Foerster
Dr. Véronique Carrere
Dr. Michael Rast
Prof. Dr. Karl Staenz
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Remote Sensing is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.


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Published Papers (15 papers)

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Editorial

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169 KiB  
Editorial
Preface: The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation
by Saskia Foerster, Véronique Carrère, Michael Rast and Karl Staenz
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(11), 957; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8110957 - 17 Nov 2016
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5015
Abstract
The imaging spectroscopy mission EnMAP aims to assess the state and evolution of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, examine the multifaceted impacts of human activities, and support a sustainable use of natural resources. Once in operation (scheduled to launch in 2019), EnMAP will provide [...] Read more.
The imaging spectroscopy mission EnMAP aims to assess the state and evolution of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, examine the multifaceted impacts of human activities, and support a sustainable use of natural resources. Once in operation (scheduled to launch in 2019), EnMAP will provide high-quality observations in the visible to near-infrared and shortwave-infrared spectral range. The scientific preparation of the mission comprises an extensive science program. This special issue presents a collection of research articles, demonstrating the potential of EnMAP for various applications along with overview articles on the mission and software tools developed within its scientific preparation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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Research

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11320 KiB  
Article
Potential of Resolution-Enhanced Hyperspectral Data for Mineral Mapping Using Simulated EnMAP and Sentinel-2 Images
by Naoto Yokoya, Jonathan Cheung-Wai Chan and Karl Segl
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(3), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8030172 - 24 Feb 2016
Cited by 133 | Viewed by 10109
Abstract
Spaceborne hyperspectral images are useful for large scale mineral mapping. Acquired at a ground sampling distance (GSD) of 30 m, the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) will be capable of putting many issues related to environment monitoring and resource exploration in perspective [...] Read more.
Spaceborne hyperspectral images are useful for large scale mineral mapping. Acquired at a ground sampling distance (GSD) of 30 m, the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) will be capable of putting many issues related to environment monitoring and resource exploration in perspective with measurements in the spectral range between 420 and 2450 nm. However, a higher spatial resolution is preferable for many applications. This paper investigates the potential of fusion-based resolution enhancement of hyperspectral data for mineral mapping. A pair of EnMAP and Sentinel-2 images is generated from a HyMap scene over a mining area. The simulation is based on well-established sensor end-to-end simulation tools. The EnMAP image is fused with Sentinel-2 10-m-GSD bands using a matrix factorization method to obtain resolution-enhanced EnMAP data at a 10 m GSD. Quality assessments of the enhanced data are conducted using quantitative measures and continuum removal and both show that high spectral and spatial fidelity are maintained. Finally, the results of spectral unmixing are compared with those expected from high-resolution hyperspectral data at a 10 m GSD. The comparison demonstrates high resemblance and shows the great potential of the resolution enhancement method for EnMAP type data in mineral mapping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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38979 KiB  
Article
EnGeoMAP 2.0—Automated Hyperspectral Mineral Identification for the German EnMAP Space Mission
by Christian Mielke, Christian Rogass, Nina Boesche, Karl Segl and Uwe Altenberger
Remote Sens. 2016, 8(2), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8020127 - 5 Feb 2016
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 12065
Abstract
Algorithms for a rapid analysis of hyperspectral data are becoming more and more important with planned next generation spaceborne hyperspectral missions such as the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) and the Japanese Hyperspectral Imager Suite (HISUI), together with an ever growing pool [...] Read more.
Algorithms for a rapid analysis of hyperspectral data are becoming more and more important with planned next generation spaceborne hyperspectral missions such as the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) and the Japanese Hyperspectral Imager Suite (HISUI), together with an ever growing pool of hyperspectral airborne data. The here presented EnGeoMAP 2.0 algorithm is an automated system for material characterization from imaging spectroscopy data, which builds on the theoretical framework of the Tetracorder and MICA (Material Identification and Characterization Algorithm) of the United States Geological Survey and of EnGeoMAP 1.0 from 2013. EnGeoMAP 2.0 includes automated absorption feature extraction, spatio-spectral gradient calculation and mineral anomaly detection. The usage of EnGeoMAP 2.0 is demonstrated at the mineral deposit sites of Rodalquilar (SE-Spain) and Haib River (S-Namibia) using HyMAP and simulated EnMAP data. Results from Hyperion data are presented as supplementary information. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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3712 KiB  
Article
Spectral Unmixing of Forest Crown Components at Close Range, Airborne and Simulated Sentinel-2 and EnMAP Spectral Imaging Scale
by Anne Clasen, Ben Somers, Kyle Pipkins, Laurent Tits, Karl Segl, Max Brell, Birgit Kleinschmit, Daniel Spengler, Angela Lausch and Michael Förster
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(11), 15361-15387; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71115361 - 18 Nov 2015
Cited by 37 | Viewed by 10571
Abstract
Forest biochemical and biophysical variables and their spatial and temporal distribution are essential inputs to process-orientated ecosystem models. To provide this information, imaging spectroscopy appears to be a promising tool. In this context, the present study investigates the potential of spectral unmixing to [...] Read more.
Forest biochemical and biophysical variables and their spatial and temporal distribution are essential inputs to process-orientated ecosystem models. To provide this information, imaging spectroscopy appears to be a promising tool. In this context, the present study investigates the potential of spectral unmixing to derive sub-pixel crown component fractions in a temperate deciduous forest ecosystem. However, the high proportion of foliage in this complex vegetation structure leads to the problem of saturation effects, when applying broadband vegetation indices. This study illustrates that multiple endmember spectral mixture analysis (MESMA) can contribute to overcoming this challenge. Reference fractional abundances, as well as spectral measurements of the canopy components, could be precisely determined from a crane measurement platform situated in a deciduous forest in North-East Germany. In contrast to most other studies, which only use leaf and soil endmembers, this experimental setup allowed for the inclusion of a bark endmember for the unmixing of components within the canopy. This study demonstrates that the inclusion of additional endmembers markedly improves the accuracy. A mean absolute error of 7.9% could be achieved for the fractional occurrence of the leaf endmember and 5.9% for the bark endmember. In order to evaluate the results of this field-based study for airborne and satellite-based remote sensing applications, a transfer to Airborne Imaging Spectrometer for Applications (AISA) and simulated Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) and Sentinel-2 imagery was carried out. All sensors were capable of unmixing crown components with a mean absolute error ranging between 3% and 21%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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1310 KiB  
Article
Hyperspectral Differentiation of Phytoplankton Taxonomic Groups: A Comparison between Using Remote Sensing Reflectance and Absorption Spectra
by Hongyan Xi, Martin Hieronymi, Rüdiger Röttgers, Hajo Krasemann and Zhongfeng Qiu
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(11), 14781-14805; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71114781 - 6 Nov 2015
Cited by 67 | Viewed by 11395
Abstract
The emergence of hyperspectral optical satellite sensors for ocean observation provides potential for more detailed information from aquatic ecosystems. The German hyperspectral satellite mission EnMAP (enmap.org) currently in the production phase is supported by a project to explore the capability of using EnMAP [...] Read more.
The emergence of hyperspectral optical satellite sensors for ocean observation provides potential for more detailed information from aquatic ecosystems. The German hyperspectral satellite mission EnMAP (enmap.org) currently in the production phase is supported by a project to explore the capability of using EnMAP data and other future hyperspectral data from space. One task is to identify phytoplankton taxonomic groups. To fulfill this objective, on the basis of laboratory-measured absorption coefficients of phytoplankton cultures (aph(λ)) and corresponding simulated remote sensing reflectance spectra (Rrs(λ)), we examined the performance of spectral fourth-derivative analysis and clustering techniques to differentiate six taxonomic groups. We compared different sources of input data, namely aph(λ), Rrs(λ), and the absorption of water compounds obtained from inversion of the Rrs(λ)) spectra using a quasi-analytical algorithm (QAA). Rrs(λ) was tested as it can be directly obtained from hyperspectral sensors. The last one was tested as expected influences of the spectral features of pure water absorption on Rrs(λ) could be avoided after subtracting it from the inverted total absorption. Results showed that derivative analysis of measured aph(λ) spectra performed best with only a few misclassified cultures. Based on Rrs(λ) spectra, the accuracy of this differentiation decreased but the performance was partly restored if wavelengths of strong water absorption were excluded and chlorophyll concentrations were higher than 1 mg∙m−3. When based on QAA-inverted absorption spectra, the differentiation was less precise due to loss of information at longer wavelengths. This analysis showed that, compared to inverted absorption spectra from restricted inversion models, hyperspectral Rrs(λ) is potentially suitable input data for the differentiation of phytoplankton taxonomic groups in prospective EnMAP applications, though still a challenge at low algal concentrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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3901 KiB  
Article
The Potential of EnMAP and Sentinel-2 Data for Detecting Drought Stress Phenomena in Deciduous Forest Communities
by Sandra Dotzler, Joachim Hill, Henning Buddenbaum and Johannes Stoffels
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(10), 14227-14258; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71014227 - 27 Oct 2015
Cited by 58 | Viewed by 11214
Abstract
Given the importance of forest ecosystems, the availability of reliable, spatially explicit information about the site-specific climate sensitivity of tree species is essential for implementing suitable adaptation strategies. In this study, airborne hyperspectral data were used to assess the response of deciduous species [...] Read more.
Given the importance of forest ecosystems, the availability of reliable, spatially explicit information about the site-specific climate sensitivity of tree species is essential for implementing suitable adaptation strategies. In this study, airborne hyperspectral data were used to assess the response of deciduous species (dominated by European beech and Sessile and Pedunculate oak) to water stress during a summery dry spell. After masking canopy gaps, shaded crown areas and non-deciduous species, potentially indicative spectral indices, the Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI), Moisture Stress Index (MSI), Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), and Chlorophyll Index (CI), were analyzed with respect to available maps of site-specific soil moisture regimes. PRI provided an important indication of site-specific photosynthetic stress on leaf level in relation to limitations in soil water availability. The CI, MSI and NDWI revealed statistically significant differences in total chlorophyll and water concentration at the canopy level. However, after reducing the canopy effects by normalizing these indices with respect to the structure-sensitive simple ratio (SR) vegetation index, it was not yet possible to identify site-specific concentration differences in leaf level at this early stage of the drought. The selected indicators were also tested with simulated EnMAP and Sentinel-2 data (derived from the original airborne data set). While PRI proved to be useful also in the spatial resolution of EnMAP (GSD = 30 m), this was not the case with Sentinel-2, owing to the lack of adequate spectral bands; the remaining indicators (MSI, CI, SR) were also successfully produced with Sentinel-2 data at superior spatial resolution (GSD = 10 m). The study confirms the importance of using earth observation systems for supplementing traditional ecological site classification maps, particularly during dry spells and heat waves when ecological gradients are increasingly reflected in the spectral response at the tree crown level. It also underlined the importance of using Sentinel-2 and EnMAP in synergy, as soon as both systems become available. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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7874 KiB  
Article
Restoration of Simulated EnMAP Data through Sparse Spectral Unmixing
by Daniele Cerra, Jakub Bieniarz, Rupert Müller, Tobias Storch and Peter Reinartz
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(10), 13190-13207; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71013190 - 5 Oct 2015
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5757
Abstract
This paper proposes the use of spectral unmixing and sparse reconstruction methods to restore a simulated dataset for the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP), the forthcoming German spaceborne hyperspectral mission. The described method independently decomposes each image element into a set of [...] Read more.
This paper proposes the use of spectral unmixing and sparse reconstruction methods to restore a simulated dataset for the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP), the forthcoming German spaceborne hyperspectral mission. The described method independently decomposes each image element into a set of representative spectra, which come directly from the image and have previously undergone a low-pass filtering in noisy bands. The residual vector from the unmixing process is considered as mostly composed of noise and ignored in the reconstruction process. The first assessment of the results is encouraging, as the original bands taken into account are reconstructed with a high signal-to-noise ratio and low overall distortions. Furthermore, the same method could be applied for the inpainting of dead pixels, which could affect EnMAP data, especially at the end of the satellite’s life cycle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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6355 KiB  
Article
The Potential of Pan-Sharpened EnMAP Data for the Assessment of Wheat LAI
by Bastian Siegmann, Thomas Jarmer, Florian Beyer and Manfred Ehlers
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(10), 12737-12762; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71012737 - 28 Sep 2015
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7307
Abstract
In modern agriculture, the spatially differentiated assessment of the leaf area index (LAI) is of utmost importance to allow an adapted field management. Current hyperspectral satellite systems provide information with a high spectral but only a medium spatial resolution. Due to the limited [...] Read more.
In modern agriculture, the spatially differentiated assessment of the leaf area index (LAI) is of utmost importance to allow an adapted field management. Current hyperspectral satellite systems provide information with a high spectral but only a medium spatial resolution. Due to the limited ground sampling distance (GSD), hyperspectral satellite images are often insufficient for precision agricultural applications. In the presented study, simulated hyperspectral data of the upcoming Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) mission (30 m GSD) covering an agricultural region were pan-sharpened with higher resolution panchromatic aisaEAGLE (airborne imaging spectrometer for applications EAGLE) (3 m GSD) and simulated Sentinel-2 images (10 m GSD) using the spectral preserving Ehlers Fusion. As fusion evaluation criteria, the spectral angle (αspec) and the correlation coefficient (R) were calculated to determine the spectral preservation capability of the fusion results. Additionally, partial least squares regression (PLSR) models were built based on the EnMAP images, the fused datasets and the original aisaEAGLE hyperspectral data to spatially predict the LAI of two wheat fields. The aisaEAGLE model provided the best results (R2cv = 0.87) followed by the models built with the fused datasets (EnMAP–aisaEAGLE and EnMAP–Sentinel-2 fusion each with a R2cv of 0.75) and the simulated EnMAP data (R2cv = 0.68). The results showed the suitability of pan-sharpened EnMAP data for a reliable spatial prediction of LAI and underlined the potential of pan-sharpening to enhance spatial resolution as required for precision agriculture applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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26324 KiB  
Article
Capability of Spaceborne Hyperspectral EnMAP Mission for Mapping Fractional Cover for Soil Erosion Modeling
by Sarah Malec, Derek Rogge, Uta Heiden, Arturo Sanchez-Azofeifa, Martin Bachmann and Martin Wegmann
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(9), 11776-11800; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70911776 - 15 Sep 2015
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 7309
Abstract
Soil erosion can be linked to relative fractional cover of photosynthetic-active vegetation (PV), non-photosynthetic-active vegetation (NPV) and bare soil (BS), which can be integrated into erosion models as the cover-management C-factor. This study investigates the capability of EnMAP imagery to map fractional cover [...] Read more.
Soil erosion can be linked to relative fractional cover of photosynthetic-active vegetation (PV), non-photosynthetic-active vegetation (NPV) and bare soil (BS), which can be integrated into erosion models as the cover-management C-factor. This study investigates the capability of EnMAP imagery to map fractional cover in a region near San Jose, Costa Rica, characterized by spatially extensive coffee plantations and grazing in a mountainous terrain. Simulated EnMAP imagery is based on airborne hyperspectral HyMap data. Fractional cover estimates are derived in an automated fashion by extracting image endmembers to be used with a Multiple End-member Spectral Mixture Analysis approach. The C-factor is calculated based on the fractional cover estimates determined independently for EnMAP and HyMap. Results demonstrate that with EnMAP imagery it is possible to extract quality endmember classes with important spectral features related to PV, NPV and soil, and be able to estimate relative cover fractions. This spectral information is critical to separate BS and NPV which greatly can impact the C-factor derivation. From a regional perspective, we can use EnMAP to provide good fractional cover estimates that can be integrated into soil erosion modeling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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2370 KiB  
Article
Estimating the Influence of Spectral and Radiometric Calibration Uncertainties on EnMAP Data Products—Examples for Ground Reflectance Retrieval and Vegetation Indices
by Martin Bachmann, Aliaksei Makarau, Karl Segl and Rudolf Richter
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(8), 10689-10714; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70810689 - 19 Aug 2015
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7127
Abstract
As part of the EnMAP preparation activities this study aims at estimating the uncertainty in the EnMAP L2A ground reflectance product using the simulated scene of Barrax, Spain. This dataset is generated using the EnMAP End-to-End Simulation tool, providing a realistic scene for [...] Read more.
As part of the EnMAP preparation activities this study aims at estimating the uncertainty in the EnMAP L2A ground reflectance product using the simulated scene of Barrax, Spain. This dataset is generated using the EnMAP End-to-End Simulation tool, providing a realistic scene for a well-known test area. Focus is set on the influence of the expected radiometric calibration stability and the spectral calibration stability. Using a Monte-Carlo approach for uncertainty analysis, a larger number of realisations for the radiometric and spectral calibration are generated. Next, the ATCOR atmospheric correction is conducted for the test scene for each realisation. The subsequent analysis of the generated ground reflectance products is carried out independently for the radiometric and the spectral case. Findings are that the uncertainty in the L2A product is wavelength-dependent, and, due to the coupling with the estimation of atmospheric parameters, also spatially variable over the scene. To further illustrate the impact on subsequent data analysis, the influence on two vegetation indices is briefly analysed. Results show that the radiometric and spectral stability both have a high impact on the uncertainty of the narrow-band Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI), and also the broad-band Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is affected. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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1278 KiB  
Article
Using Class Probabilities to Map Gradual Transitions in Shrub Vegetation from Simulated EnMAP Data
by Stefan Suess, Sebastian Van der Linden, Akpona Okujeni, Pedro J. Leitão, Marcel Schwieder and Patrick Hostert
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(8), 10668-10688; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70810668 - 18 Aug 2015
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 7780
Abstract
Monitoring natural ecosystems and ecosystem transitions is crucial for a better understanding of land change processes. By providing synoptic views in space and time, remote sensing data have proven to be valuable sources for such purposes. With the forthcoming Environmental Mapping and Analysis [...] Read more.
Monitoring natural ecosystems and ecosystem transitions is crucial for a better understanding of land change processes. By providing synoptic views in space and time, remote sensing data have proven to be valuable sources for such purposes. With the forthcoming Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP), frequent and area-wide mapping of natural environments by means of high quality hyperspectral data becomes possible. However, the amplified spectral mixing due to the sensor’s ground sampling distance of 30 m on the one hand and the patterns of natural landscapes in the form of gradual transitions between different land cover types on the other require special attention. Based on simulated EnMAP data, this study focuses on mapping shrub vegetation along a landscape gradient of shrub encroachment in a semi-arid, natural environment in Portugal. We demonstrate how probability outputs from a support vector classification (SVC) model can be used to extend a hard classification by information on shrub cover fractions. This results in a more realistic representation of gradual transitions in shrub vegetation maps. We suggest a new, adapted approach for SVC parameter selection: During the grid search, parameter pairs are evaluated with regard to the prediction of synthetically mixed test data, representing shrub to non-shrub transitions, instead of the hard classification of original, discrete test data. Validation with an unbiased, equalized random sampling shows that the resulting shrub-class probabilities from adapted SVC more accurately represent shrub cover fractions (mean absolute error/root mean squared error of 16.3%/23.2%) compared to standard SVC (17.1%/29.5%). Simultaneously, the discrete classification output was considerably improved by incorporating synthetic mixtures into parameter selection (averaged F1 accuracies increased from 72.4% to 81.3%). Based on our findings, the integration of synthetic mixtures into SVC parameterization allows the use of SVC for sub-pixel cover fraction estimation and, this way, can be recommended for deriving improved qualitative and quantitative descriptions of gradual transitions in shrub vegetation. The approach is therefore of high relevance for mapping natural ecosystems from future EnMAP data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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2288 KiB  
Article
Retrieval of Seasonal Leaf Area Index from Simulated EnMAP Data through Optimized LUT-Based Inversion of the PROSAIL Model
by Matthias Locherer, Tobias Hank, Martin Danner and Wolfram Mauser
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(8), 10321-10346; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70810321 - 12 Aug 2015
Cited by 57 | Viewed by 8607
Abstract
The upcoming satellite mission EnMAP offers the opportunity to retrieve information on the seasonal development of vegetation parameters on a regional scale based on hyperspectral data. This study aims to investigate whether an analysis method for the retrieval of leaf area index (LAI), [...] Read more.
The upcoming satellite mission EnMAP offers the opportunity to retrieve information on the seasonal development of vegetation parameters on a regional scale based on hyperspectral data. This study aims to investigate whether an analysis method for the retrieval of leaf area index (LAI), developed and validated on the 4 m resolution scale of six airborne datasets covering the 2012 growing period, is transferable to the spaceborne 30 m resolution scale of the future EnMAP mission. The widely used PROSAIL model is applied to generate look-up-table (LUT) libraries, by which the model is inverted to derive LAI information. With the goal of defining the impact of different selection criteria in the inversion process, different techniques for the LUT based inversion are tested, such as several cost functions, type and amount of artificial noise, number of considered solutions and type of averaging method. The optimal inversion procedure (Laplace, median, 4% inverse multiplicative noise, 350 out of 100,000 averages) is identified by validating the results against corresponding in-situ measurements (n = 330) of LAI. Finally, the best performing LUT inversion (R2 = 0.65, RMSE = 0.64) is adapted to simulated EnMAP data, generated from the airborne acquisitions. The comparison of the retrieval results to upscaled maps of LAI, previously validated on the 4 m scale, shows that the optimized retrieval method can successfully be transferred to spaceborne EnMAP data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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Review

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6042 KiB  
Review
The EnMAP Spaceborne Imaging Spectroscopy Mission for Earth Observation
by Luis Guanter, Hermann Kaufmann, Karl Segl, Saskia Foerster, Christian Rogass, Sabine Chabrillat, Theres Kuester, André Hollstein, Godela Rossner, Christian Chlebek, Christoph Straif, Sebastian Fischer, Stefanie Schrader, Tobias Storch, Uta Heiden, Andreas Mueller, Martin Bachmann, Helmut Mühle, Rupert Müller, Martin Habermeyer, Andreas Ohndorf, Joachim Hill, Henning Buddenbaum, Patrick Hostert, Sebastian Van der Linden, Pedro J. Leitão, Andreas Rabe, Roland Doerffer, Hajo Krasemann, Hongyan Xi, Wolfram Mauser, Tobias Hank, Matthias Locherer, Michael Rast, Karl Staenz and Bernhard Sangadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(7), 8830-8857; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70708830 - 13 Jul 2015
Cited by 604 | Viewed by 27314
Abstract
Imaging spectroscopy, also known as hyperspectral remote sensing, is based on the characterization of Earth surface materials and processes through spectrally-resolved measurements of the light interacting with matter. The potential of imaging spectroscopy for Earth remote sensing has been demonstrated since the 1980s. [...] Read more.
Imaging spectroscopy, also known as hyperspectral remote sensing, is based on the characterization of Earth surface materials and processes through spectrally-resolved measurements of the light interacting with matter. The potential of imaging spectroscopy for Earth remote sensing has been demonstrated since the 1980s. However, most of the developments and applications in imaging spectroscopy have largely relied on airborne spectrometers, as the amount and quality of space-based imaging spectroscopy data remain relatively low to date. The upcoming Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) German imaging spectroscopy mission is intended to fill this gap. An overview of the main characteristics and current status of the mission is provided in this contribution. The core payload of EnMAP consists of a dual-spectrometer instrument measuring in the optical spectral range between 420 and 2450 nm with a spectral sampling distance varying between 5 and 12 nm and a reference signal-to-noise ratio of 400:1 in the visible and near-infrared and 180:1 in the shortwave-infrared parts of the spectrum. EnMAP images will cover a 30 km-wide area in the across-track direction with a ground sampling distance of 30 m. An across-track tilted observation capability will enable a target revisit time of up to four days at the Equator and better at high latitudes. EnMAP will contribute to the development and exploitation of spaceborne imaging spectroscopy applications by making high-quality data freely available to scientific users worldwide. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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Concept Paper
Monitoring Natural Ecosystem and Ecological Gradients: Perspectives with EnMAP
by Pedro J. Leitão, Marcel Schwieder, Stefan Suess, Akpona Okujeni, Lênio Soares Galvão, Sebastian Van der Linden and Patrick Hostert
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(10), 13098-13119; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71013098 - 2 Oct 2015
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 7146
Abstract
In times of global environmental change, the sustainability of human–environment systems is only possible through a better understanding of ecosystem processes. An assessment of anthropogenic environmental impacts depends upon monitoring natural ecosystems. These systems are intrinsically complex and dynamic, and are characterized by [...] Read more.
In times of global environmental change, the sustainability of human–environment systems is only possible through a better understanding of ecosystem processes. An assessment of anthropogenic environmental impacts depends upon monitoring natural ecosystems. These systems are intrinsically complex and dynamic, and are characterized by ecological gradients. Remote sensing data repeatedly collected in a systematic manner are suitable for describing such gradual changes over time and landscape gradients, e.g., through information on the vegetation’s phenology. Specifically, imaging spectroscopy is capable of describing ecosystem processes, such as primary productivity or leaf water content of vegetation. Future spaceborne imaging spectroscopy missions like the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) will repeatedly acquire high-quality data of the Earth’s surface, and will thus be extremely useful for describing natural ecosystems and the services they provide. In this conceptual paper, we present some of the preparatory research of the EnMAP Scientific Advisory Group (EnSAG) on natural ecosystems and ecosystem transitions. Through two case studies we illustrate the usage of spectral indices derived from multi-date imaging spectroscopy data at EnMAP scale, for mapping vegetation gradients. We thus demonstrate the benefit of future EnMAP data for monitoring ecological gradients and natural ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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15324 KiB  
Technical Note
The EnMAP-Box—A Toolbox and Application Programming Interface for EnMAP Data Processing
by Sebastian Van der Linden, Andreas Rabe, Matthias Held, Benjamin Jakimow, Pedro J. Leitão, Akpona Okujeni, Marcel Schwieder, Stefan Suess and Patrick Hostert
Remote Sens. 2015, 7(9), 11249-11266; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs70911249 - 1 Sep 2015
Cited by 219 | Viewed by 20396
Abstract
The EnMAP-Box is a toolbox that is developed for the processing and analysis of data acquired by the German spaceborne imaging spectrometer EnMAP (Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program). It is developed with two aims in mind in order to guarantee full usage of [...] Read more.
The EnMAP-Box is a toolbox that is developed for the processing and analysis of data acquired by the German spaceborne imaging spectrometer EnMAP (Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program). It is developed with two aims in mind in order to guarantee full usage of future EnMAP data, i.e., (1) extending the EnMAP user community and (2) providing access to recent approaches for imaging spectroscopy data processing. The software is freely available and offers a range of tools and applications for the processing of spectral imagery, including classical processing tools for imaging spectroscopy data as well as powerful machine learning approaches or interfaces for the integration of methods available in scripting languages. A special developer version includes the full open source code, an application programming interface and an application wizard for easy integration and documentation of new developments. This paper gives an overview of the EnMAP-Box for users and developers, explains typical workflows along an application example and exemplifies the concept for making it a frequently used and constantly extended platform for imaging spectroscopy applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) Mission: Preparing for Its Scientific Exploitation)
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