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20 pages, 7473 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Millimeter Wave Attenuation Due to Wind and Heavy Rain in a Tropical Region

by Ukrit Mankong, Pakawat Chamsuk, Sitthichok Nakprasert, Sangdaun Potha, Zu-Kai Weng, Pham Tien Dat, Atsushi Kanno and Tetsuya Kawanishi

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2532; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052532 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2503

Abstract

Millimeter wave fixed wireless systems in future backhaul and access network applications can be affected by weather conditions. The losses caused by rain attenuation and antenna misalignment due to wind-induced vibrations have greater impacts on the link budget reduction at E-band frequencies and [...] Read more.

Millimeter wave fixed wireless systems in future backhaul and access network applications can be affected by weather conditions. The losses caused by rain attenuation and antenna misalignment due to wind-induced vibrations have greater impacts on the link budget reduction at E-band frequencies and higher. The current International Telecommunications Union Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) recommendation has been widely used to estimate rain attenuation, and the recent Asia Pacific Telecommunity (APT) report provides the model to estimate the wind-induced attenuation. This article provides the first experimental study of the combined rain and wind effects in a tropical location using both models at a frequency in the E band (74.625 GHz) and a short distance of 150 m. In addition to using wind speeds for attenuation estimation, the setup also provides direct antenna inclination angle measurements using the accelerometer data. This solves the limitation of relying on the wind speed since the wind-induced loss is dependent on the inclination direction. The results show that the current ITU-R model can be used to estimate the attenuation of a short fixed wireless link under heavy rain, and the addition of wind attenuation via the APT model can estimate the worst-case link budget during high wind speeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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10 pages, 3611 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Path Loss Measurement of Outdoor Wireless Channel in D-band

by Chengzhen Bian, Weiping Li, Mingxu Wang, Xinyi Wang, Yi Wei and Wen Zhou

Sensors 2022, 22(24), 9734; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249734 - 12 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2095

Abstract

D-band (110–170 GHz) has received much attention in recent years due to its larger bandwidth. However, analyzing the loss characteristics of the wireless channel is very complicated at the millimeter-wave (MMW) band. Research on D-band wireless channels has been focused on indoor short-distance [...] Read more.

D-band (110–170 GHz) has received much attention in recent years due to its larger bandwidth. However, analyzing the loss characteristics of the wireless channel is very complicated at the millimeter-wave (MMW) band. Research on D-band wireless channels has been focused on indoor short-distance transmissions, with few studies looking at outdoor long-distance wireless channels. In this paper, we provide the design of the D-band outdoor long-distance transmission system, propose the outdoor line-of-sight (LOS) propagation measurements, and study the outdoor D-band propagation loss characteristics with distances up to 800 m. The path loss model uses the Floating Intercept (FI) and the Close-In (CI) model is established based on the least square method. In the CI model, the path loss exponent is greater than 2 and increases with frequency, while in the FI model, the path loss exponent has no apparent frequency dependence. The results show that D-band path loss in long-distance outdoor scenarios is greater than that in free space, indicating that the propagation condition is worse than in free space. The results show that both models have similar performance. Under this basis, the model with the smallest number of parameters would be the optimal choice. In addition, these results prospectively provide a theoretical model for designing and optimizing high frequency mm-wave propagation measurements at a distance of 200 m and beyond. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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11 pages, 1848 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Polarization Division Multiplexing Transmission System Based on Simplified Twin-SSB Modulation

by Ye Zhou, Jun Ming, Leilei Wang, Dongyan Wu, Li Zhao and Jiangnan Xiao

Sensors 2022, 22(20), 7700; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22207700 - 11 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1927

Abstract

Optical twin-single sideband (Twin-SSB) modulation, due to the left sideband (LSB) and right sideband (RSB) signal carrying individual data, has become an attractive technique in fiber transmission because it satisfies the demand of the explosive increase in data traffic. This paper focuses on [...] Read more.

Optical twin-single sideband (Twin-SSB) modulation, due to the left sideband (LSB) and right sideband (RSB) signal carrying individual data, has become an attractive technique in fiber transmission because it satisfies the demand of the explosive increase in data traffic. This paper focuses on reducing the complexity of Twin-SSB system and further enhancing the spectral efficiency by proposing a polarization division multiplexing (PDM) Twin-SSB modulation scheme. LSB and RSB signals are extracted using de-mapping algorithm instead of optical bandpass filters (OBPFs) to reduce system complexity. To further improve spectral efficiency, PDM is employed to meet the polarization multiplexing transmission and achieve a higher transmission capacity. Based on the PDM Twin-SSB system, the LSB is 3-arr phase-shift-keying (3PSK) modulated, while RSB is quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) modulated. We simulated that the bit error ratio (BER) performance of LSB and RSB of X-polarization (X-Pol) and Y-polarization (Y-Pol) at 8-Gbaud, 10-Gbaud, 12-Gbaud, 14-Gbaud, and 16-Gbaud in the case of back-to-back (BTB) and 2 km standard single-mode fiber (SSMF) transmission. The simulation results verify the effectiveness and practical feasibility of the proposed PDM Twin-SSB scheme for future short-distance transmission owing to low cost, simplified structure, low algorithm complexity, and high data transmission capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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12 pages, 4052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Penetration Loss of D-Band Millimeter Wave for Typical Materials

by Xinyi Wang, Weiping Li, Mingxu Wang, Chengzhen Bian, Yi Wei and Wen Zhou

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7666; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197666 - 9 Oct 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3169

Abstract

The millimeter-wave frequency band provides abundant frequency resources for the development of beyond 5th generation mobile network (B5G) mobile communication, and its relative bandwidth of 1% can provide a gigabit-level communication bandwidth. In particular, the D-band (110–170 GHz) has received much attention, due [...] Read more.

The millimeter-wave frequency band provides abundant frequency resources for the development of beyond 5th generation mobile network (B5G) mobile communication, and its relative bandwidth of 1% can provide a gigabit-level communication bandwidth. In particular, the D-band (110–170 GHz) has received much attention, due to its large available bandwidth. However, certain bands in the D-band are easily blocked by obstacles and lack penetration. In this paper, D-band millimeter-wave penetration losses of typical materials, such as vegetation, planks, glass, and slate, are investigated theoretically and experimentally. The comparative analysis between our experimental results and theoretical predictions shows that D-band waves find it difficult to penetrate thick materials, making it difficult for 5G millimeter waves to cover indoors from outdoor macro stations. The future B5G mobile communication also requires significant measurement work on different frequencies and different scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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16 pages, 1960 KiB

Open AccessArticle

5G/B5G mmWave Cellular Networks with MEC Prefetching Based on User Context Information

by Kazuki Maruta, Hiroaki Nishiuchi, Jin Nakazato, Gia Khanh Tran and Kei Sakaguchi

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 6983; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22186983 - 15 Sep 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2056

Abstract

To deal with recent increasing mobile traffic, ultra-broadband communication with millimeter-wave (mmWave) has been regarded as a key technology for 5G cellular networks. In a previous study, a mmWave heterogeneous network was composed of several mmWave small cells overlaid on the coverage of [...] Read more.

To deal with recent increasing mobile traffic, ultra-broadband communication with millimeter-wave (mmWave) has been regarded as a key technology for 5G cellular networks. In a previous study, a mmWave heterogeneous network was composed of several mmWave small cells overlaid on the coverage of a macro cell. However, as seen from the optical fiber penetration rate worldwide, it is difficult to say that backhaul with Gbps order is available everywhere. In the case of using mmWave access under a limited backhaul capacity, it becomes a bottleneck at the backhaul; thus, mmWave access cannot fully demonstrate its potential. On the other hand, the concept of multi-access edge computing (MEC) has been proposed to decrease the response latency compared to cloud computing by deploying storage and computation resources to the user side of mobile networks. This paper introduces MEC into mmWave heterogeneous networks and proposes a content prefetching algorithm to resolve such backhaul issues. Context information, such as the destination, mobility, and traffic tendency, is shared through the macro cell to the prefetch application and data that the users request. Prefetched data is stored in the MEC and then transmitted via mmWave without a backhaul bottleneck. The effectiveness is verified through computer simulations where we implement realistic user mobility as well as traffic and backhauling models. The results show that the proposed framework achieved 95% system capacity even under the constraint of a 1 Gbps backhaul link. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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16 pages, 1599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reflection Characteristics Measurements of Indoor Wireless Link in D-Band

by Mingxu Wang, Yanyi Wang, Weiping Li, Junjie Ding, Chengzhen Bian, Xinyi Wang, Chao Wang, Chao Li, Zhimeng Zhong and Jianjun Yu

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 6908; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22186908 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2437

Abstract

For the millimeter wave (mm-Wave) and terahertz (THz) indoor wireless communication system, the reflection channels need to be characterized and modeled. In this paper, the reflection measurements of the parallel polarized wave are carried out under multiple incident angles and five kinds of [...] Read more.

For the millimeter wave (mm-Wave) and terahertz (THz) indoor wireless communication system, the reflection channels need to be characterized and modeled. In this paper, the reflection measurements of the parallel polarized wave are carried out under multiple incident angles and five kinds of materials in the D-band (110–170 GHz). A modified reflection model with two parameters estimated by the minimum mean square error (MMSE) criterion is proposed. The results show that the measurements are in good agreement with the proposed model. Furthermore, a set of measured properties is demonstrated and it can be concluded that both the reflection coefficients and relative permittivity gradually decrease, whereas the surface roughness increases slightly with the increasing frequency, indicating a weak frequency dependence. Interestingly, the concrete board with high surface roughness, which means more power loss in a specular direction, has the lowest reflection loss at a certain frequency and incident angle. It implies that the reflection characteristics of indoor building materials are determined not only by surface roughness, but also by many other factors, such as relative permittivity, frequency, and incident angle. Our work suggests that the reflection measurements of indoor D-band wireless links have a prospective application for future indoor wireless communication systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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22 pages, 996 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inter-User Distance Estimation Based on a New Type of Fingerprint in Massive MIMO System for COVID-19 Contact Detection

by Siyuan Yang, Mondher Bouazizi, Yuwen Cao and Tomoaki Ohtsuki

Sensors 2022, 22(16), 6211; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166211 - 18 Aug 2022

Viewed by 1627

Abstract

In this paper, we address the challenging task of estimating the distance between different users in a Millimeter Wave (mmWave) massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (mMIMO) system. The conventional Time of Arrival (ToA) and Angle of Arrival (AoA) based methods need users under the Line-of-Sight [...] Read more.

In this paper, we address the challenging task of estimating the distance between different users in a Millimeter Wave (mmWave) massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (mMIMO) system. The conventional Time of Arrival (ToA) and Angle of Arrival (AoA) based methods need users under the Line-of-Sight (LoS) scenario. Under the Non-LoS (NLoS) scenario, the fingerprint-based method can extract the fingerprint that includes the location information of users from the channel state information (CSI). However, high accuracy CSI estimation involves a huge overhead and high computational complexity. Thus, we design a new type of fingerprint generated by beam sweeping. In other words, we do not have to know the CSI to generate fingerprint. In general, each user can record the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) of the received beams by performing beam sweeping. Such measured RSSI values, formatted in a matrix, could be seen as beam energy image containing the angle and location information. However, we do not use the beam energy image as the fingerprint directly. Instead, we use the difference between two beam energy images as the fingerprint to train a Deep Neural Network (DNN) that learns the relationship between the fingerprints and the distance between these two users. Because the proposed fingerprint is rich in terms of the users’ location information, the DNN can easily learn the relationship between the difference between two beam energy images and the distance between those two users. We term it as the DNN-based inter-user distance (IUD) estimation method. Nonetheless, we investigate the possibility of using a super-resolution network to reduce the involved beam sweeping overhead. Using super-resolution to increase the resolution of low-resolution beam energy images obtained by the wide beam sweeping for IUD estimation can facilitate considerate improvement in accuracy performance. We evaluate the proposed DNN-based IUD estimation method by using original images of resolution 4 × 4, 8 × 8, and 16 × 16. Simulation results show that our method can achieve an average distance estimation error equal to 0.13 m for a coverage area of 60 × 30 m². Moreover, our method outperforms the state-of-the-art IUD estimation methods that rely on users’ location information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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Review

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23 pages, 3848 KiB

Open AccessReview

Towards 100 Gbps over 100 km: System Design and Demonstration of E-Band Millimeter Wave Communication

by Zeyuan Zhang, Xianbing Zou, Qun Li and Ning Wei

Sensors 2022, 22(23), 9514; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22239514 - 5 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3142

Abstract

Long-range E-band communication with fiber-equivalent speed is emerging extensively as a critical technology in the next-generation communication. This paper firstly reviews the relevant progress in recent research. A brief survey is presented on high-speed, long-range E-band communication systems and their relevant techniques that [...] Read more.

Long-range E-band communication with fiber-equivalent speed is emerging extensively as a critical technology in the next-generation communication. This paper firstly reviews the relevant progress in recent research. A brief survey is presented on high-speed, long-range E-band communication systems and their relevant techniques that are essential to the link design, including antenna, power amplifier (PA), channel, and digital baseband processing. In the second part, we review our recent field trial of a long-range air-to-ground E-band link, which maintains steady transmission from a slow-moving helium balloon to the ground station with a vertical dimension of 20 km. The improvement directions and future research topics are then discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Future Trends in Millimeter Wave Communication)

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