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23 pages, 24821 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flow Ripple Reduction in Reciprocating Pumps by Multi-Phase Rectification

by Gürhan Özkayar, Zhilin Wang, Joost Lötters, Marcel Tichem and Murali Krishna Ghatkesar

Sensors 2023, 23(15), 6967; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156967 - 5 Aug 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1861

Abstract

Reciprocating piezoelectric micropumps enable miniaturization in microfluidics for lab-on-a-chip applications such as organs-on-chips (OoC). However, achieving a steady flow when using these micropumps is a significant challenge because of flow ripples in the displaced liquid, especially at low frequencies or low flow rates [...] Read more.

Reciprocating piezoelectric micropumps enable miniaturization in microfluidics for lab-on-a-chip applications such as organs-on-chips (OoC). However, achieving a steady flow when using these micropumps is a significant challenge because of flow ripples in the displaced liquid, especially at low frequencies or low flow rates (<50 µL/min). Although dampers are widely used for reducing ripples in a flow, their efficiency depends on the driving frequency of the pump. Here, we investigated multi-phase rectification as an approach to minimize ripples at low flow rates by connecting piezoelectric micropumps in parallel. The efficiency in ripple reduction was evaluated with an increasing number (n) of pumps connected in parallel, each actuated by an alternating voltage waveform with a phase difference of 2π/n (called multi-phase rectification) at a chosen frequency. We introduce a fluidic ripple factor (

R F_{f l .}

), which is the ratio of the root mean square (

R M S

) value of the fluctuations present in the rectified output to the average fluctuation-free value of the discharge flow, as a metric to express the quality of the flow. The fluidic ripple factor was reduced by more than 90% by using three-phase rectification when compared to one-phase rectification in the 2–60 μL/min flow rate range. Analytical equations to estimate the fluidic ripple factor for a chosen number of pumps connected in parallel are presented, and we experimentally confirmed up to four pumps. The analysis shown can be used to design a frequency-independent multi-phase fluid rectifier to the desired ripple level in a flow for reciprocating pumps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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18 pages, 6075 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Designing a Geodesic Faceted Acoustical Volumetric Array Using a Novel Analytical Method

by Taofeek Ayotunde Yusuf and Yongrae Roh

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3173; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063173 - 16 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1700

Abstract

We present a novel analytical method as an efficient approach to design a geodesic-faceted array (GFA) for achieving a beam performance equivalent to that of a typical spherical array (SA). GFA is a triangle-based quasi-spherical configuration, which is conventionally created using the icosahedron [...] Read more.

We present a novel analytical method as an efficient approach to design a geodesic-faceted array (GFA) for achieving a beam performance equivalent to that of a typical spherical array (SA). GFA is a triangle-based quasi-spherical configuration, which is conventionally created using the icosahedron method imitated from the geodesic dome roof construction process. In this conventional approach, the geodesic triangles have nonuniform geometries due to some distortions that occur during the random icosahedron division process. In this study, we took a paradigm shift from this approach and adopt a new technique to design a GFA that is based on uniform triangles. The characteristic equations that relate the geodesic triangle with a spherical platform were first developed as functions of the operating frequency and geometric parameters of the array. Then, the directional factor was derived to calculate the beam pattern associated with the array. A sample design of GFA for a given underwater sonar imaging system was synthesized through an optimization process. The GFA design was compared with that of a typical SA, and a reduction of 16.5% in the number of array elements was recorded in the GFA at a nearly equivalent performance. Both arrays were modeled, simulated, and analyzed using the finite element method (FEM) to validate the theoretical designs. Comparison of the results showed a high degree of compliance between the FEM and the theoretical method for both arrays. The proposed novel approach is faster and requires fewer computer resources than the FEM. Moreover, this approach is more flexible than the traditional icosahedron method in adjusting geometrical parameters in response to desired performance outputs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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15 pages, 4602 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Influencing Parameters Enhancing the Plucking Efficiency of Piezoelectric Energy Harvesters

by Saša Zelenika, Petar Gljušćić, Andrea Barukčić and Marko Perčić

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 3069; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23063069 - 13 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1433

Abstract

The integration of energy harvesting systems into sensing technologies can result in novel autonomous sensor nodes, characterized by significant simplification and mass reduction. The use of piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs), particularly in cantilever form, is considered as one of the most promising approaches [...] Read more.

The integration of energy harvesting systems into sensing technologies can result in novel autonomous sensor nodes, characterized by significant simplification and mass reduction. The use of piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEHs), particularly in cantilever form, is considered as one of the most promising approaches aimed at collecting ubiquitous low-level kinetic energy. Due to the random nature of most excitation environments, the narrow PEH operating frequency bandwidth implies, however, the need to introduce frequency up-conversion mechanisms, able to convert random excitation into the oscillation of the cantilever at its eigenfrequency. A first systematic study is performed in this work to investigate the effects of 3D-printed plectrum designs on the specific power outputs obtainable from FUC excited PEHs. Therefore, novel rotating plectra configurations with different design parameters, determined by using a design-of-experiment methodology and manufactured via fused deposition modeling, are used in an innovative experimental setup to pluck a rectangular PEH at different velocities. The obtained voltage outputs are analyzed via advanced numerical methods. A comprehensive insight into the effects of plectrum properties on the responses of the PEHs is attained, representing a new and important step towards the development of efficient harvesters aimed at a wide range of applications, from wearable devices to structural health monitoring systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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14 pages, 7286 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Underwater Energy Harvester with Two PVDFs Installed on the FTEH and CTEH at the End of the Support

by Jongkil Lee, Jinhyo An, Chonghyun Lee, Yoonsang Jeong, Hee-Seon Seo and Yohan Cho

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 808; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020808 - 10 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1344

Abstract

In this study, two thin rectangular PVDFs were installed in the form of a cantilever on a FTEH (funnel-type energy harvester), and a CTEH (cymbal-type energy harvester) was fabricated in a form coupled to the upper part of the support. As a result [...] Read more.

In this study, two thin rectangular PVDFs were installed in the form of a cantilever on a FTEH (funnel-type energy harvester), and a CTEH (cymbal-type energy harvester) was fabricated in a form coupled to the upper part of the support. As a result of measuring the energy harvesting sensitivity according to the installation direction of the CTEH, a high voltage was measured in the structure installed on top of the support across all flow velocity conditions. A composite structure PVDF energy harvester combining CTEH and FTEH was fabricated and the amount of power generated was measured. As a result of measuring the open-circuit voltage of the PVDF energy harvester device with a composite structure to which the optimum resistance of CTEH of 241 kΩ and the optimum resistance of FTEH of 1474 kΩ were applied at a flow rate of 0.25 m/s, the output voltage compared to the RMS average value was 7 to 8.5 times higher for FTEH than for CTEH. When the flow rate was 0.5 m/s, the electrical energy charged for 500 s was measured as 2.0 μWs to 2.5 μWs, and when the flow speed was 0.75 m/s, it reached 2.5 μWs when charged for 300 s, generating the same amount when the flow rate increased by 50%. The time to do it was reduced by 66.7%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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15 pages, 6279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of Multilayer Transducer and Omnidirectional Reflection Model for Active Reflection Control

by Beom Hoon Park, Han Bin Choi, Hee-Seon Seo, Yub Je, Hak Yi and Kwan Kyu Park

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 521; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010521 - 3 Jan 2023

Viewed by 2195

Abstract

Underwater detection is accomplished using an underwater ultrasonic sensor, sound navigation and ranging (SONAR). Stealth to avoid detection by SONAR plays a major role in modern underwater warfare. In this study, we propose a smart skin that avoids detection by SONAR via controlling [...] Read more.

Underwater detection is accomplished using an underwater ultrasonic sensor, sound navigation and ranging (SONAR). Stealth to avoid detection by SONAR plays a major role in modern underwater warfare. In this study, we propose a smart skin that avoids detection by SONAR via controlling the signal reflected from an unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV). The smart skin is a multilayer transducer composed of an acoustic window, a double-layer receiver, and a single-layer transmitter. It separates the incident signal from the reflected signal from outside through the time-delay separation method and cancels the reflected wave from the phase-shifted transmission sound. The characteristics of the receiving and transmitting sensors were analyzed using a finite element analysis. Three types of devices were compared in the design of the sensors. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), which had little effect on the transmitted sound, was selected as the receiving sensor. A stacked piezoelectric transducer with high sensitivity compared to a cymbal transducer was used as the transmitter. The active reflection control system was modeled and verified using 2D 360° reflection experiments. The stealth effect that could be achieved by applying a smart skin to a UUV was presented through an active reflection–control omnidirectional reflection model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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12 pages, 1640 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of the Polarization Profile of Conical-Shaped Shells Piezoelectric Sensors

by Sergio Horta Muñoz and David Ruiz

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010442 - 31 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1443

Abstract

Conical shell structures are frequently submitted to severe static and dynamic mechanical loads that can result in situations that affect the service of the systems that are part of, or even cause catastrophic failures. For this reason, a common solution is to design [...] Read more.

Conical shell structures are frequently submitted to severe static and dynamic mechanical loads that can result in situations that affect the service of the systems that are part of, or even cause catastrophic failures. For this reason, a common solution is to design an active deformation control system, usually using piezoelectric patches strategically distributed along the surface of the shell structure. Moreover, these elements may be part of an energy recovery system. This paper details the methodology to topologically optimize the placement of piezoelectric elements through a characteristic function, analysing static and free vibration loading cases by means of the finite element method. Then, the optimal arrangement of the electrode with different polarization profiles is distributed throughout the entire structure. The nature of the loading cases studied corresponds to a general situation where static loads and dynamics vibration are considered. The objective function of the problem only depends linearly on the displacement fields, and therefore, the optimal electrode profile can be obtained for any combination of loads. As a consequence, this technique allows for maximising the electric charge obtained, which results in a greater capacity for monitoring, actuation and/or energy harvesting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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15 pages, 3551 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Rapid Prototyping Method for Sub-MHz Single-Element Piezoelectric Transducers by Using 3D-Printed Components

by Jinwook Kim, Bryce Menichella, Hanjoo Lee, Paul A. Dayton and Gianmarco F. Pinton

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010313 - 28 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2468

Abstract

We present a rapid prototyping method for sub-megahertz single-element piezoelectric transducers by using 3D-printed components. In most of the early research phases of applying new sonication ideas, the prototyping quickness is prioritized over the final packaging quality, since the quickness of preliminary demonstration [...] Read more.

We present a rapid prototyping method for sub-megahertz single-element piezoelectric transducers by using 3D-printed components. In most of the early research phases of applying new sonication ideas, the prototyping quickness is prioritized over the final packaging quality, since the quickness of preliminary demonstration is crucial for promptly determining specific aims and feasible research approaches. We aim to develop a rapid prototyping method for functional ultrasonic transducers to overcome the current long lead time (>a few weeks). Here, we used 3D-printed external housing parts considering a single matching layer and either air backing or epoxy-composite backing (acoustic impedance > 5 MRayl). By molding a single matching layer on the top surface of a piezoceramic in a 3D-printed housing, an entire packaging time was significantly reduced (<26 h) compared to the conventional methods with grinding, stacking, and bonding. We demonstrated this prototyping method for 590-kHz single-element, rectangular-aperture transducers for moderate pressure amplitudes (mechanical index > 1) at focus with temporal pulse controllability (maximum amplitude by <5-cycle burst). We adopted an air-backing design (Type A) for efficient pressure outputs, and bandwidth improvement was tested by a tungsten-composite-backing (Type B) design. The acoustic characterization results showed that the type A prototype provided 3.3 kPa/V_pp far-field transmitting sensitivity with 25.3% fractional bandwidth whereas the type B transducer showed 2.1 kPa/V_pp transmitting sensitivity with 43.3% fractional bandwidth. As this method provided discernable quickness and cost efficiency, this detailed rapid prototyping guideline can be useful for early-phase sonication projects, such as multi-element therapeutic ultrasound array and micro/nanomedicine testing benchtop device prototyping. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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12 pages, 6522 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Impedance Coupled Voltage Boosting Circuit for Polyvinylidene Fluoride Based Energy Harvester

by Kibae Lee, Yoonsang Jeong, Chong Hyun Lee, Jongkil Lee, Hee-Seon Seo and Yohan Cho

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010137 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1449

Abstract

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is an emerging method for energy harvesting by fluid motion with superior flexibility. However, the PVDF energy harvester, which has a high internal impedance and generates a low voltage, has a large power transmission loss. To overcome this problem, we [...] Read more.

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is an emerging method for energy harvesting by fluid motion with superior flexibility. However, the PVDF energy harvester, which has a high internal impedance and generates a low voltage, has a large power transmission loss. To overcome this problem, we propose an impedance-coupled voltage-boosting circuit (IC-VBC) that reduces the impedance of the PVDF energy harvester and boosts the voltage. SPICE simulation results show that IC-VBC reduces the impedance of the PVDF energy harvester from 4.3 MΩ to 320 kΩ and increases the output voltage by 2.52 times. We successfully charged lithium-ion batteries using the PVDF energy harvester and IC-VBC with low-speed wind power generation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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12 pages, 5614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Underwater Testing of a Vector Hydrophone Comprising a Triaxial Piezoelectric Accelerometer and Spherical Hydrophone

by Taehoun Roh, Hong Goo Yeo, Cheeyoung Joh, Yongrae Roh, Kyungseop Kim, Hee-seon Seo and Hongsoo Choi

Sensors 2022, 22(24), 9796; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22249796 - 13 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4926

Abstract

A vector hydrophone is an underwater acoustic sensor that can detect the direction of a sound source. Wide-band characteristics and high sensitivity enhance the performance of underwater surveillance systems in complex environments. A vector hydrophone comprising a triaxial piezoelectric accelerometer and spherical hydrophone [...] Read more.

A vector hydrophone is an underwater acoustic sensor that can detect the direction of a sound source. Wide-band characteristics and high sensitivity enhance the performance of underwater surveillance systems in complex environments. A vector hydrophone comprising a triaxial piezoelectric accelerometer and spherical hydrophone was fabricated and tested in the air and underwater. The vector hydrophone was designed to exceed the quantitative figures of merit (i.e., receiving voltage sensitivity and bandwidth) of commercially available hydrophones. Accelerometer performance was enhanced by placing a pair of piezoelectric single crystals on each axis and modifying the seismic mass material. The receiving voltage sensitivity of the omnidirectional hydrophone was approximately −160 dB relative to

1 V / μ Pa

with the amplifier in water; the sensitivity of the accelerometer exceeded 300 mV/g in air and −215 dB relative to

1 V / μ Pa

underwater over the frequency range of interest. The receiving directivity of the vector hydrophone was validated underwater, which confirmed that it could detect the direction of a sound source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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14 pages, 1112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Modified Prandtl–Ishlinskii Hysteresis Model for Modeling and Compensating Asymmetric Hysteresis of Piezo-Actuated Flexure-Based Systems

by Chao Zhou, Meng Yuan, Chen Feng and Wei Tech Ang

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8763; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228763 - 13 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1979

Abstract

Piezo-actuated flexure-based systems are widely used in applications with high accuracy requirements, but the intrinsic hysteresis has a detrimental effect on the performance which should be compensated. Conventional models were presented to model this undesired effect using additional dead-zone operators. This paper presents [...] Read more.

Piezo-actuated flexure-based systems are widely used in applications with high accuracy requirements, but the intrinsic hysteresis has a detrimental effect on the performance which should be compensated. Conventional models were presented to model this undesired effect using additional dead-zone operators. This paper presents a new approach using two sets of operators with a distributed compensator to model and compensate for the asymmetric system hysteresis based on inversion calculation with a simplified digitized representation. The experimental results validate the effectiveness of the proposed model in modeling and compensating the asymmetric system hysteresis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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14 pages, 5245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Equivalent Circuit to Analyze the Transmitting Characteristics of a Cymbal Array

by Hayeong Shim, Kyungseop Kim, Heeseon Seo and Yongrae Roh

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8743; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228743 - 12 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1701

Abstract

A cymbal transducer has a simple structure consisting of a piezoceramic disk and metallic caps and has broadband characteristics when built as an array. The finite element method (FEM) is generally used to analyze the characteristics of acoustic transducers. However, the FEM requires [...] Read more.

A cymbal transducer has a simple structure consisting of a piezoceramic disk and metallic caps and has broadband characteristics when built as an array. The finite element method (FEM) is generally used to analyze the characteristics of acoustic transducers. However, the FEM requires a longer analysis time as the model becomes larger, which makes it limited and less efficient for analyzing the cymbal array. In this study, a new equivalent circuit with higher efficiency and accuracy, comparable to that of the FEM, was proposed to analyze the performance of cymbal arrays. The equivalent circuit for the array was constructed by connecting the equivalent circuits of individual cymbal transducers in parallel with a radiation impedance matrix that included both the self- and mutual radiation characteristics of the array. The validity of the new equivalent circuit was verified by measuring the transmitting voltage response of a cymbal array specimen and comparing it with that calculated using the circuit. The comparison confirmed the efficiency of the equivalent circuit in analyzing the characteristics of the cymbal array. The proposed equivalent circuit can facilitate the design of a large array of cymbal transducers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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17 pages, 17815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Ultrasonic Machining Characteristics under Dynamic Load

by Zhangping Chen, Xinghong Zhao, Shixing Chen, Honghuan Chen, Pengfei Ni and Fan Zhang

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8576; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218576 - 7 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2279

Abstract

This research focuses on the load characteristics of piezoelectric transducers in the process of longitudinal vibration ultrasonic welding. We are primarily interested in the impedance characteristics of the piezoelectric transducer during loading, which is studied by leveraging the equivalent circuit theory of piezoelectric [...] Read more.

This research focuses on the load characteristics of piezoelectric transducers in the process of longitudinal vibration ultrasonic welding. We are primarily interested in the impedance characteristics of the piezoelectric transducer during loading, which is studied by leveraging the equivalent circuit theory of piezoelectric transducers. Specifically, we propose a cross-value mapping method. This method can well map the load change in ultrasonic welding to the impedance change, aiming to obtain an equivalent model of impedance and load. The least-squares strategy is used for parameter identification during data fitting. Extensive simulations and physical experiments are conducted to verify the proposed model. As a result, we can empirically find that the result from our model agrees with the impedance characteristics from the real-life data measured by the impedance meter, indicating its potential for real practice in controller research and transducer design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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10 pages, 3399 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Design of an Acoustic Through-Casing Logging Tool

by Kai Zhang, Shengqing Li, Yuanda Su, Baohai Tan and Bo Zhang

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8404; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218404 - 1 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2188

Abstract

Well logging is performed in oil and gas exploration wells to obtain the physical characteristics of underground formations. Thereafter, these wells are cased. Through-casing logging is important in mature fields and for wells that are cased without logging due to borehole stability issues. [...] Read more.

Well logging is performed in oil and gas exploration wells to obtain the physical characteristics of underground formations. Thereafter, these wells are cased. Through-casing logging is important in mature fields and for wells that are cased without logging due to borehole stability issues. Acoustic through-casing logging is a challenging issue due to the strong interference of casing waves in formation waves, especially when the casing and formation are poorly bonded. An acoustic tool with dual-source transmitters is developed, in which an additional transducer is added to suppress casing waves. First, the operation principle and the overall design of the tool are carried out, including the span distance between the two transmitting transducers and the spacing distance between the transmitting transducer and the receiving transducers. Thereafter, a dual-source transmitting circuit is designed to send out two excitation signals of opposite polarities. These signals possess good consistency, high emission power, and precise signal adjustment. Lastly, the tool is tested in cased exploration wells in China. The experiment endings show that about 90% of the casing waves are canceled. By suppressing the casing wave amplitude, the cased-hole acoustic logging can be used commercially to obtain trustworthy formation information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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11 pages, 3554 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of a Potting Material and Method for Broadband Underwater Cymbal Arrays

by Wenbo Wang, Hayeong Shim and Yongrae Roh

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8324; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218324 - 30 Oct 2022

Viewed by 1905

Abstract

Cymbal transducers are often used in arrays for underwater communication and detection systems. The working environment of a cymbal array is underwater; therefore, waterproofing, salt-corrosion prevention, and impact resistance are necessary for stable operation of the array. Hence, we simulated potting a cymbal [...] Read more.

Cymbal transducers are often used in arrays for underwater communication and detection systems. The working environment of a cymbal array is underwater; therefore, waterproofing, salt-corrosion prevention, and impact resistance are necessary for stable operation of the array. Hence, we simulated potting a cymbal array with 15 different rubber and epoxy materials available in the market, using the finite element method, and analyzed their effect on the transmitting voltage response spectrum of the array. From the analysis results, we selected the material that would achieve the widest frequency bandwidth, while preserving the structural stability of the array. A potting method corresponding to the selected material was suggested as well. This study provides guidelines for the selection of a potting material for use in underwater transducer arrays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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Review

Jump to: Research

21 pages, 3168 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Design of Piezoelectric Acoustic Transducers for Underwater Applications

by Joo Young Pyun, Young Hun Kim and Kwan Kyu Park

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 1821; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041821 - 6 Feb 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8006

Abstract

Interest in underwater transducers has persisted since the mid-1900s. Underwater transducers are designed in various shapes using various materials depending on the purpose of use, such as to achieve high power, improve broadband, and enhance beam steering. Therefore, in this study, an analysis [...] Read more.

Interest in underwater transducers has persisted since the mid-1900s. Underwater transducers are designed in various shapes using various materials depending on the purpose of use, such as to achieve high power, improve broadband, and enhance beam steering. Therefore, in this study, an analysis is conducted according to the structural shape of the transducer, exterior material, and active material. By classifying transducers by structure, the transducer design trends and possible design issues can be identified. Researchers have constantly attempted new methods to improve the performance of transducers. In addition, a methodology to overcome this problem is presented. Finally, this review covers old and new research, and will serve as a reference for designers of underwater transducer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Piezoelectric Sensors and Actuators)

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