Toxins

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20 pages, 2287 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cyanobacterial Blooms and Microcystins in Southern Vietnam

by Bui Trung, Thanh-Son Dao, Elisabeth Faassen and Miquel Lürling

Toxins 2018, 10(11), 471; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10110471 - 14 Nov 2018

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 5829

Abstract

Studies on cyanobacteria in Vietnam are limited and mainly restricted to large reservoirs. Cyanobacterial blooms in small water bodies may pose a health risk to local people. We sampled 17 water bodies in the vicinity of urban settlements throughout the Mekong basin and [...] Read more.

Studies on cyanobacteria in Vietnam are limited and mainly restricted to large reservoirs. Cyanobacterial blooms in small water bodies may pose a health risk to local people. We sampled 17 water bodies in the vicinity of urban settlements throughout the Mekong basin and in southeast Vietnam. From these, 40 water samples were taken, 24 cyanobacterial strains were isolated and 129 fish, 68 snail, 7 shrimp, 4 clam, and 4 duck samples were analyzed for microcystins (MCs). MCs were detected up to 11,039 µg/L or to 4033 µg/g DW in water samples. MCs were detected in the viscera of the animals. MC-LR and MC-RR were most frequently detected, while MC-dmLR, MC-LW, and MC-LF were first recorded in Vietnam. Microcystis was the main potential toxin producer and the most common bloom-forming species. A potential health hazard was found in a duck–fish pond located in the catchment of DauTieng reservoir and in the DongNai river where raw water was collected for DongNai waterwork. The whole viscera of fish and snails must be completely removed during food processing. Cyanobacterial monitoring programs should be established to assess and minimize potential public health risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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12 pages, 1309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Causative Ciguatoxins in Red Snappers Lutjanus bohar Implicated in Ciguatera Fish Poisonings in Vietnam

by Dao Viet Ha, Aya Uesugi, Hajime Uchida, Pham Xuan Ky, Dang Quoc Minh, Ryuichi Watanabe, Ryoji Matsushima, Hiroshi Oikawa, Satoshi Nagai, Mitsunori Iwataki, Yasuwo Fukuyo and Toshiyuki Suzuki

Toxins 2018, 10(10), 420; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10100420 - 20 Oct 2018

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4361

Abstract

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is a type of food poisoning caused by the consumption of a variety of toxic ciguatera fish species in the tropical and subtropical waters. Although there have been a large number of suspected CFP cases in the Southeast Asian [...] Read more.

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is a type of food poisoning caused by the consumption of a variety of toxic ciguatera fish species in the tropical and subtropical waters. Although there have been a large number of suspected CFP cases in the Southeast Asian countries, few were confirmed with causative ciguatoxins (CTXs), and reliable information on the symptoms still remains rather limited. In the present study, CTXs in red snapper Lutjanus bohar, implicated in two suspected CFP cases in Vietnam in 2014 and 2016, were determined by use of the single-quadrupole selected ion monitoring (SIM) liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Ciguatoxin-1B (CTX-1B), 54-deoxyCTX-1B, and 52-epi-54-deoxyCTX-1B were detected in the red snapper by our LC/MS method. Moreover, CTX-1B, 54-deoxyCTX-1B, and 52-epi-54-deoxyCTX-1B were further identified by the time of flight (TOF) LC/MS with the exact mass spectrum. The CTX profile of the red snapper in Vietnam is similar to those of ciguatera fish from Australia, Okinawa Islands in Japan, Kiribati, and Hong Kong. This is the first comprehensive report unambiguously identifying the causative toxins in fish implicated with reliable information on the poisoning symptoms in CFP in Vietnam and/or Southeast Asian countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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19 pages, 6906 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbial Diversity and Toxin Risk in Tropical Freshwater Reservoirs of Cape Verde

by Ana P. Semedo-Aguiar, Jose B. Pereira-Leal and Ricardo B. Leite

Toxins 2018, 10(5), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10050186 - 5 May 2018

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 8622

Abstract

The Cape Verde islands are part of the African Sahelian arid belt that possesses an erratic rain pattern prompting the need for water reservoirs, which are now critical for the country’s sustainability. Worldwide, freshwater cyanobacterial blooms are increasing in frequency due to global [...] Read more.

The Cape Verde islands are part of the African Sahelian arid belt that possesses an erratic rain pattern prompting the need for water reservoirs, which are now critical for the country’s sustainability. Worldwide, freshwater cyanobacterial blooms are increasing in frequency due to global climate change and the eutrophication of water bodies, particularly in reservoirs. To date, there have been no risk assessments of cyanobacterial toxin production in these man-made structures. We evaluated this potential risk using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and full metagenome sequencing in freshwater reservoirs of Cape Verde. Our analysis revealed the presence of several potentially toxic cyanobacterial genera in all sampled reservoirs. Faveta potentially toxic and bloom-forming Microcystis sp., dominated our samples, while a Cryptomonas green algae and Gammaproteobacteria dominated Saquinho and Poilão reservoirs. We reconstructed and assembled the Microcystis genome, extracted from the metagenome of bulk DNA from Faveta water. Phylogenetic analysis of Microcystis cf. aeruginosa CV01’s genome revealed its close relationship with other Microcystis genomes, as well as clustering with other continental African strains, suggesting geographical coherency. In addition, it revealed several clusters of known toxin-producing genes. This survey reinforces the need to better understand the country’s microbial ecology as a whole of water reservoirs on the rise. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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13 pages, 2250 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Prorocentrolide-A from Cultured Prorocentrum lima Dinoflagellates Collected in Japan Blocks Sub-Types of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

by Muriel Amar, Rómulo Aráoz, Bogdan I. Iorga, Takeshi Yasumoto, Denis Servent and Jordi Molgó

Toxins 2018, 10(3), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10030097 - 28 Feb 2018

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6240

Abstract

Prorocentrolides are members of the cyclic imine phycotoxins family. Their chemical structure includes a 26-membered carbo-macrocycle and a 28-membered macrocyclic lactone arranged around a hexahydroisoquinoline that incorporates the characteristic cyclic imine group. Six prorocentrolides are already known. However, their mode of action remains [...] Read more.

Prorocentrolides are members of the cyclic imine phycotoxins family. Their chemical structure includes a 26-membered carbo-macrocycle and a 28-membered macrocyclic lactone arranged around a hexahydroisoquinoline that incorporates the characteristic cyclic imine group. Six prorocentrolides are already known. However, their mode of action remains undetermined. The aim of the present work was to explore whether prorocentrolide-A acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), using competition-binding assays and electrophysiological techniques. Prorocentrolide-A displaced [¹²⁵I]α-bungarotoxin binding to Torpedo membranes, expressing the muscle-type (α1₂β1γδ) nAChR, and in HEK-293 cells, expressing the chimeric chick neuronal α7-5HT₃ nAChR. Functional studies revealed that prorocentrolide-A had no agonist action on nAChRs, but inhibited ACh-induced currents in Xenopus oocytes that had incorporated the muscle-type α1₂β1γδ nAChR to their membranes, or that expressed the human α7 nAChR, as revealed by voltage-clamp recordings. Molecular docking calculations showed the absence of the characteristic hydrogen bond between the iminium group of prorocentrolide-A and the backbone carbonyl group of Trp147 in the receptor, explaining its weaker affinity as compared to all other cyclic imine toxins. In conclusion, this is the first study to show that prorocentrolide-A acts on both muscle and neuronal nAChRs, but with higher affinity on the muscle-type nAChR. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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10 pages, 257 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Repeated Dietary Exposure to Low Levels of Domoic Acid and Problems with Everyday Memory: Research to Public Health Outreach

by Lynn M. Grattan, Carol J. Boushey, Yuanyuan Liang, Kathi A. Lefebvre, Laura J. Castellon, Kelsey A. Roberts, Alexandra C. Toben and J. G. Morris

Toxins 2018, 10(3), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10030103 - 28 Feb 2018

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5795

Abstract

Domoic Acid (DA) is a marine-based neurotoxin. Dietary exposure to high levels of DA via shellfish consumption has been associated with Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning, with milder memory decrements found in Native Americans (NAs) with repetitive, lower level exposures. Despite its importance for protective [...] Read more.

Domoic Acid (DA) is a marine-based neurotoxin. Dietary exposure to high levels of DA via shellfish consumption has been associated with Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning, with milder memory decrements found in Native Americans (NAs) with repetitive, lower level exposures. Despite its importance for protective action, the clinical relevance of these milder memory problems remains unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine whether repeated, lower-level exposures to DA impact everyday memory (EM), i.e., the frequency of memory failures in everyday life. A cross-sectional sample of 60 NA men and women from the Pacific NW was studied with measures of dietary exposure to DA via razor clam (RC) consumption and EM. Findings indicated an association between problems with EM and elevated consumption of RCs with low levels of DA throughout the previous week and past year after controlling for age, sex, and education. NAs who eat a lot of RCs with presumably safe levels of DA are at risk for clinically significant memory problems. Public health outreach to minimize repetitive exposures are now in place and were facilitated by the use of community-based participatory research methods, with active involvement of state regulatory agencies, tribe leaders, and local physicians. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

16 pages, 1044 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tectus niloticus (Tegulidae, Gastropod) as a Novel Vector of Ciguatera Poisoning: Clinical Characterization and Follow-Up of a Mass Poisoning Event in Nuku Hiva Island (French Polynesia)

by Clémence Mahana iti Gatti, Davide Lonati, Hélène Taiana Darius, Arturo Zancan, Mélanie Roué, Azzurra Schicchi, Carlo Alessandro Locatelli and Mireille Chinain

Toxins 2018, 10(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10030102 - 28 Feb 2018

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 6273

Abstract

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is the most prevalent non-bacterial food-borne form of poisoning in French Polynesia, which results from the consumption of coral reef fish naturally contaminated with ciguatoxins produced by dinoflagellates in the genus Gambierdiscus. Since the early 2000s, this French [...] Read more.

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is the most prevalent non-bacterial food-borne form of poisoning in French Polynesia, which results from the consumption of coral reef fish naturally contaminated with ciguatoxins produced by dinoflagellates in the genus Gambierdiscus. Since the early 2000s, this French territory has also witnessed the emergence of atypical forms of ciguatera, known as ciguatera shellfish poisoning (CSP), associated with the consumption of marine invertebrates. In June 2014, nine tourists simultaneously developed a major and persistent poisoning syndrome following the consumption of the gastropod Tectus niloticus collected in Anaho, a secluded bay of Nuku Hiva Island (Marquesas Archipelago, French Polynesia). The unusual nature and severity of this event prompted a multidisciplinary investigation in order to characterize the etiology and document the short/long-term health consequences of this mass-poisoning event. This paper presents the results of clinical investigations based on hospital medical records, medical follow-up conducted six and 20 months post-poisoning, including a case description. This study is the first to describe the medical signature of T. niloticus poisoning in French Polynesia and contributed to alerting local authorities about the potential health hazards associated with the consumption of this gastropod, which is highly prized by local communities in Pacific island countries and territories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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2984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tectus niloticus (Tegulidae, Gastropod) as a Novel Vector of Ciguatera Poisoning: Detection of Pacific Ciguatoxins in Toxic Samples from Nuku Hiva Island (French Polynesia)

by Hélène Taiana Darius, Mélanie Roué, Manoella Sibat, Jérôme Viallon, Clémence Mahana iti Gatti, Mark W. Vandersea, Patricia A. Tester, R. Wayne Litaker, Zouher Amzil, Philipp Hess and Mireille Chinain

Toxins 2018, 10(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10010002 - 21 Dec 2017

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 8246

Abstract

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is a foodborne disease caused by the consumption of seafood (fish and marine invertebrates) contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs) produced by dinoflagellates in the genus Gambierdiscus. The report of a CFP-like mass-poisoning outbreak following the consumption of Tectus niloticus [...] Read more.

Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is a foodborne disease caused by the consumption of seafood (fish and marine invertebrates) contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs) produced by dinoflagellates in the genus Gambierdiscus. The report of a CFP-like mass-poisoning outbreak following the consumption of Tectus niloticus (Tegulidae, Gastropod) from Anaho Bay on Nuku Hiva Island (Marquesas archipelago, French Polynesia) prompted field investigations to assess the presence of CTXs in T. niloticus. Samples were collected from Anaho Bay, 1, 6 and 28 months after this poisoning outbreak, as well as in Taiohae and Taipivai bays. Toxicity analysis using the neuroblastoma cell-based assay (CBA-N2a) detected the presence of CTXs only in Anaho Bay T. niloticus samples. This is consistent with qPCR results on window screen samples indicating the presence of Gambierdiscus communities dominated by the species G. polynesiensis in Anaho Bay. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses revealed that P-CTX-3B was the major congener, followed by P-CTX-3C, P-CTX-4A and P-CTX-4B in toxic samples. Between July 2014 and November 2016, toxin content in T. niloticus progressively decreased, but was consistently above the safety limit recommended for human consumption. This study confirms for the first time T. niloticus as a novel vector of CFP in French Polynesia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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260 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Management of Ciguatoxin Risk in Eastern Australia

by Hazel Farrell, Shauna A. Murray, Anthony Zammit and Alan W. Edwards

Toxins 2017, 9(11), 367; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins9110367 - 14 Nov 2017

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6944

Abstract

Between 2014 and 2016, five cases of ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), involving twenty four individuals, were linked to Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson) caught in the coastal waters of the state of New South Wales (NSW) on the east coast of Australia. [...] Read more.

Between 2014 and 2016, five cases of ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), involving twenty four individuals, were linked to Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson) caught in the coastal waters of the state of New South Wales (NSW) on the east coast of Australia. Previously, documented cases of CFP in NSW were few, and primarily linked to fish imported from other regions. Since 2015, thirteen individuals were affected across four additional CFP cases in NSW, linked to fish imported from tropical locations. The apparent increase in CFP in NSW from locally sourced catch, combined with the risk of CFP from imported fish, has highlighted several considerations that should be incorporated into risk management strategies to minimize CFP exposure for seafood consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

4314 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Prevalence, Variability and Bioconcentration of Saxitoxin-Group in Different Marine Species Present in the Food Chain

by Javiera Oyaneder Terrazas, Héctor R. Contreras and Carlos García

Toxins 2017, 9(6), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins9060190 - 12 Jun 2017

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 8559

Abstract

The saxitoxin-group (STX-group) corresponds to toxic metabolites produced by cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates of the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, and Pyrodinium. Over the last decade, it has been possible to extrapolate the areas contaminated with the STX-group worldwide, including Chile, a phenomenon that [...] Read more.

The saxitoxin-group (STX-group) corresponds to toxic metabolites produced by cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates of the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, and Pyrodinium. Over the last decade, it has been possible to extrapolate the areas contaminated with the STX-group worldwide, including Chile, a phenomenon that has affected ≈35% of the Southern Pacific coast territory, generating a high economic impact. The objective of this research was to study the toxicity of the STX-group in all aquatic organisms (bivalves, algae, echinoderms, crustaceans, tunicates, cephalopods, gastropods, and fish) present in areas with a variable presence of harmful algal blooms (HABs). Then, the toxic profiles of each species and dose of STX equivalents ingested by a 60 kg person from 400 g of shellfish were determined to establish the health risk assessment. The toxins with the highest prevalence detected were gonyautoxin-4/1 (GTX4/GTX1), gonyautoxin-3/2 (GTX3/GTX2), neosaxitoxin (neoSTX), decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX), and saxitoxin (STX), with average concentrations of 400, 2800, 280, 200, and 2000 µg kg⁻¹ respectively, a species-specific variability, dependent on the evaluated tissue, which demonstrates the biotransformation of the analogues in the trophic transfer with a predominance of α-epimers in all toxic profiles. The identification in multiple vectors, as well as in unregulated species, suggests that a risk assessment and risk management update are required; also, chemical and specific analyses for the detection of all analogues associated with the STX-group need to be established. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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Review

Jump to: Research

38 pages, 1310 KiB

Open AccessReview

Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection

by Natalia Vilariño, M. Carmen Louzao, Paula Abal, Eva Cagide, Cristina Carrera, Mercedes R. Vieytes and Luis M. Botana

Toxins 2018, 10(8), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10080324 - 9 Aug 2018

Cited by 117 | Viewed by 13211

Abstract

Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause [...] Read more.

Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause serious illness. This review shows the current data regarding the symptoms of acute intoxication for several toxin classes, including paralytic toxins, amnesic toxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, tetrodotoxins, diarrheic toxins, azaspiracids and palytoxins. The information available about chronic toxicity and relative potency of different analogs within a toxin class are also reported. The gaps of toxicological knowledge that should be studied to improve human health protection are discussed. In general, gathering of epidemiological data in humans, chronic toxicity studies and exploring relative potency by oral administration are critical to minimize human health risks related to these toxin classes in the near future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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28 pages, 2329 KiB

Open AccessReview

Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) Technology for the Monitoring of Aquatic Toxins: A Review

by Mélanie Roué, Hélène Taiana Darius and Mireille Chinain

Toxins 2018, 10(4), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10040167 - 20 Apr 2018

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 9178

Abstract

The Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) technology, first introduced in 2004, uses porous synthetic resins capable of passively adsorbing toxins produced by harmful microalgae or cyanobacteria and dissolved in the water. This method allows for the detection of toxic compounds directly in [...] Read more.

The Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) technology, first introduced in 2004, uses porous synthetic resins capable of passively adsorbing toxins produced by harmful microalgae or cyanobacteria and dissolved in the water. This method allows for the detection of toxic compounds directly in the water column and offers numerous advantages over current monitoring techniques (e.g., shellfish or fish testing and microalgae/cyanobacteria cell detection), despite some limitations. Numerous laboratory and field studies, testing different adsorbent substrates of which Diaion^® HP20 resin appears to be the most versatile substrate, have been carried out worldwide to assess the applicability of these passive monitoring devices to the detection of toxins produced by a variety of marine and freshwater microorganisms. SPATT technology has been shown to provide reliable, sensitive and time-integrated sampling of various aquatic toxins, and also has the potential to provide an early warning system for both the occurrence of toxic microalgae or cyanobacteria and bioaccumulation of toxins in foodstuffs. This review describes the wide range of lipophilic and hydrophilic toxins associated with toxin-producing harmful algal blooms (HABs) that are successfully detected by SPATT devices. Implications in terms of monitoring of emerging toxic risks and reinforcement of current risk assessment programs are also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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21 pages, 5054 KiB

Open AccessReview

Impact of Scyphozoan Venoms on Human Health and Current First Aid Options for Stings

by Alessia Remigante, Roberta Costa, Rossana Morabito, Giuseppa La Spada, Angela Marino and Silvia Dossena

Toxins 2018, 10(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10040133 - 23 Mar 2018

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 7496

Abstract

Cnidaria include the most venomous animals of the world. Among Cnidaria, Scyphozoa (true jellyfish) are ubiquitous, abundant, and often come into accidental contact with humans and, therefore, represent a threat for public health and safety. The venom of Scyphozoa is a complex mixture [...] Read more.

Cnidaria include the most venomous animals of the world. Among Cnidaria, Scyphozoa (true jellyfish) are ubiquitous, abundant, and often come into accidental contact with humans and, therefore, represent a threat for public health and safety. The venom of Scyphozoa is a complex mixture of bioactive substances—including thermolabile enzymes such as phospholipases, metalloproteinases, and, possibly, pore-forming proteins—and is only partially characterized. Scyphozoan stings may lead to local and systemic reactions via toxic and immunological mechanisms; some of these reactions may represent a medical emergency. However, the adoption of safe and efficacious first aid measures for jellyfish stings is hampered by the diffusion of folk remedies, anecdotal reports, and lack of consensus in the scientific literature. Species-specific differences may hinder the identification of treatments that work for all stings. However, rinsing the sting site with vinegar (5% acetic acid) and the application of heat (hot pack/immersion in hot water) or lidocaine appear to be substantiated by evidence. Controlled clinical trials or reliable models of envenomation are warranted to confirm the efficacy and safety of these approaches and identify possible species-specific exceptions. Knowledge of the precise composition of Scyphozoa venom may open the way to molecule-oriented therapies in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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14 pages, 235 KiB

Open AccessReview

EU Regulatory Risk Management of Marine Biotoxins in the Marine Bivalve Mollusc Food-Chain

by Micheál O’Mahony

Toxins 2018, 10(3), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10030118 - 10 Mar 2018

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 6076

Abstract

Food safety risk assessment in the European Union (EU) recognises consumer illness that arises from marine biotoxins as a risk associated with bivalve mollusc consumption. EU food regulations contain various general food safety obligations, which should contribute significantly to managing this risk. EU [...] Read more.

Food safety risk assessment in the European Union (EU) recognises consumer illness that arises from marine biotoxins as a risk associated with bivalve mollusc consumption. EU food regulations contain various general food safety obligations, which should contribute significantly to managing this risk. EU food regulations additionally impose various specific obligations on both Food Business Operators and Competent Authorities in order to manage the marine biotoxin food safety risk in the bivalve mollusc food-chain. These have a particular focus on the pre-harvest component of the food-chain. A central component of these specific systems is the requirement for ongoing monitoring of phytoplankton and biotoxin concentrations in water and molluscs, respectively. This monitoring explicitly brings a potential outcome of closing production areas delineated by classification to prohibit the harvest of bivalve molluscs as food from those areas when acceptable biotoxin concentrations are exceeded. This review considers the utility of these systems, at conceptual and practical levels, and explores their contribution to an effective regulatory risk management approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Public Health Outreach to Prevention of Aquatic Toxin Exposure)

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