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Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 February 2020) | Viewed by 64642

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Federica Cheli

E-Mail Website1 Website2
Guest Editor

1. Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
2. Coordinating Research Centres (CRC), Innovation for Well-Being and Environment (I-WE), Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
Interests: animal nutrition; mycotoxins; feed; cell-based bioassay
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Mycotoxins represent a significant issue for the feed industry and the safety of the feed supply chain, with an impact on human health, animal health and production, economies, and international trade. Notifications on the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) concerning mycotoxins are among the “top 10” hazard categories with risk decision categorized as “serious”.

Mycotoxin contamination of feed is a recurring problem in the livestock feed industry in an increasingly competitive marketplace. The globalization of the trade in agricultural commodities and the lack of legislative harmonization have contributed significantly to the discussion about the awareness of mycotoxins entering the feed/food supply chain. The feed industry is a sustainable outlet for food processing industries, converting by-products into high-quality animal feed. Mycotoxin occurrence in food by-products from different technological processes is a worldwide topic of interest for the feed industry aiming to increase the marketability and acceptance of these products as feed ingredients and include them safely in the feed supply chain.

For a sustainable and competitive feed industry, there is a need for monitoring and managing the risk of mycotoxins and for strategies to prevent and reduce mycotoxins in compound feed manufacturing. To properly manage the mycotoxin risk at industrial level, a rapid mycotoxin analysis of feed represents the first and most effective tool for feed management. A key point is the choice of the analytical method at the industrial level, enabling rapid management decisions on the acceptance or rejection of a lot.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and literature reviews concerning management tools and efficient strategies for the feed industry to monitor, prevent, and reduce mycotoxins in compound feed manufacturing are welcome, including occurrence studies, mycotoxin repartitioning studies in food by-products, economic and commodity trade analysis.

Prof. Federica Cheli
Guest Editor

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Keywords

mycotoxin
occurrence
prevention
reduction strategies
management
analysis and sampling
exposure and risk assessment
climate change
commodity trade
legislation

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 199 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry

by Federica Cheli

Toxins 2020, 12(8), 480; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12080480 - 29 Jul 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2159

Abstract

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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

Research

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17 pages, 1823 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effectiveness of Durian Peel as a Multi-Mycotoxin Adsorbent

by Saowalak Adunphatcharaphon, Awanwee Petchkongkaew, Donato Greco, Vito D’Ascanio, Wonnop Visessanguan and Giuseppina Avantaggiato

Toxins 2020, 12(2), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12020108 - 8 Feb 2020

Cited by 38 | Viewed by 7153

Abstract

Durian peel (DP) is an agricultural waste that is widely used in dyes and for organic and inorganic pollutant adsorption. In this study, durian peel was acid-treated to enhance its mycotoxin adsorption efficacy. The acid-treated durian peel (ATDP) was assessed for simultaneous adsorption of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisin B₁ (FB₁). The structure of the ATDP was also characterized by SEM–EDS, FT–IR, a zetasizer, and a surface-area analyzer. The results indicated that ATDP exhibited the highest mycotoxin adsorption towards AFB₁ (98.4%), ZEA (98.4%), and OTA (97.3%), followed by FB₁ (86.1%) and DON (2.0%). The pH significantly affected OTA and FB₁ adsorption, whereas AFB₁ and ZEA adsorption was not affected. Toxin adsorption by ATDP was dose-dependent and increased exponentially as the ATDP dosage increased. The maximum adsorption capacity (Q_max), determined at pH 3 and pH 7, was 40.7 and 41.6 mmol kg⁻¹ for AFB₁, 15.4 and 17.3 mmol kg⁻¹ for ZEA, 46.6 and 0.6 mmol kg⁻¹ for OTA, and 28.9 and 0.1 mmol kg⁻¹ for FB₁, respectively. Interestingly, ATDP reduced the bioaccessibility of these mycotoxins after gastrointestinal digestion using an in vitro, validated, static model. The ATDP showed a more porous structure, with a larger surface area and a surface charge modification. These structural changes following acid treatment may explain the higher efficacy of ATDP in adsorbing mycotoxins. Hence, ATDP can be considered as a promising waste material for mycotoxin biosorption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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11 pages, 1738 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DI/LC–MS/MS-Based Metabolome Analysis of Plasma Reveals the Effects of Sequestering Agents on the Metabolic Status of Dairy Cows Challenged with Aflatoxin B₁

by Ibukun Ogunade, Yun Jiang and Andres Pech Cervantes

Toxins 2019, 11(12), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11120693 - 26 Nov 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4035

Abstract

The study applied a targeted metabolomics approach that uses a direct injection and tandem mass spectrometry (DI–MS/MS) coupled with a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS)-based metabolomics of plasma to evaluate the effects of supplementing clay with or without Saccharomyces cerevisiae fermentation product (SCFP) on the metabolic status of dairy cows challenged with aflatoxin B₁. Eight healthy, lactating, multiparous Holstein cows in early lactation (64 ± 11 DIM) were randomly assigned to one of four treatments in a balanced 4 × 4 duplicated Latin square design with four 33 d periods. Treatments were control, toxin (T; 1725 µg aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁)/head/day), T with clay (CL; 200 g/head/day), and CL with SCFP (YEA; 35 g of SCFP/head/day). Cows in T, CL, and YEA were dosed with aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) from days 26 to 30. The sequestering agents were top-dressed from day 1 to 33. On day 30 of each period, 15 mL of blood was taken from the coccygeal vessels and plasma samples were obtained from blood by centrifugation and analyzed for metabolites using a kit that combines DI–MS/MS with LC–MS/MS-based metabolomics. The data were analyzed using the GLIMMIX procedure of SAS. The model included the effects of treatment, period, and random effects of cow and square. Significance was declared at p ≤ 0.05. Biomarker profiles for aflatoxin ingestion in dairy cows fed no sequestering agents were determined using receiver–operator characteristic (ROC) curves, as calculated by the ROCCET web server. A total of 127 metabolites such as amino acids, biogenic amines, acylcarnitines, glycerophospholipids, and organic acids were quantified. Compared with the control, T decreased (p < 0.05) plasma concentrations of alanine, leucine, and arginine and tended to decrease that of citrulline. Treatment with CL had no effects on any of the metabolites relative to the control but increased (p ≤ 0.05) concentrations of alanine, leucine, arginine, and that of citrulline (p = 0.07) relative to T. Treatment with YEA resulted in greater (p ≤ 0.05) concentrations of aspartic acid and lysine relative to the control and the highest (p ≤ 0.05) plasma concentrations of alanine, valine, proline, threonine, leucine, isoleucine, glutamic acid, phenylalanine, and arginine compared with other treatments. The results of ROC analysis between C and T groups revealed that the combination of arginine, alanine, methylhistidine, and citrulline had sufficient specificity and sensitivity (area under the curve = 0.986) to be excellent potential biomarkers of aflatoxin ingestion in dairy cows fed no sequestering agents. This study confirmed the protective effects of sequestering agents in dairy cows challenged with aflatoxin B₁. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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14 pages, 1456 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative In Vitro Assessment of a Range of Commercial Feed Additives with Multiple Mycotoxin Binding Claims

by Oluwatobi Kolawole, Julie Meneely, Brett Greer, Olivier Chevallier, David S. Jones, Lisa Connolly and Christopher Elliott

Toxins 2019, 11(11), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11110659 - 12 Nov 2019

Cited by 44 | Viewed by 7213

Abstract

Contamination of animal feed with multiple mycotoxins is an ongoing and growing issue, as over 60% of cereal crops worldwide have been shown to be contaminated with mycotoxins. The present study was carried out to assess the efficacy of commercial feed additives sold with multi-mycotoxin binding claims. Ten feed additives were obtained and categorised into three groups based on their main composition. Their capacity to simultaneously adsorb deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisin B1 (FB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and T-2 toxin was assessed and compared using an in vitro model designed to simulate the gastrointestinal tract of a monogastric animal. Results showed that only one product (a modified yeast cell wall) effectively adsorbed more than 50% of DON, ZEN, FB1, OTA, T-2 and AFB1, in the following order: AFB1 > ZEN > T-2 > DON > OTA > FB1. The remaining products were able to moderately bind AFB1 (44–58%) but had less, or in some cases, no effect on ZEN, FB1, OTA and T-2 binding (<35%). It is important for companies producing mycotoxin binders that their products undergo rigorous trials under the conditions which best mimic the environment that they must be active in. Claims on the binding efficiency should only be made when such data has been generated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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30 pages, 1264 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Efficacy of a Yeast Cell Wall Extract to Mitigate the Effect of Naturally Co-Occurring Mycotoxins Contaminating Feed Ingredients Fed to Young Pigs: Impact on Gut Health, Microbiome, and Growth

by Sung Woo Kim, Débora Muratori Holanda, Xin Gao, Inkyung Park and Alexandros Yiannikouris

Toxins 2019, 11(11), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11110633 - 31 Oct 2019

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 5699

Abstract

Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are potentially toxic to pigs. Yeast cell wall extract (YCWE) is known to adsorb mycotoxins and improve gut health in pigs. One hundred and twenty growing (56 kg; experiment 1) and 48 nursery piglets (6 kg; experiment 2) were assigned to four dietary treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial design for 35 and 48 days, respectively. Factors were mycotoxins (no addition versus experiment 1: 180 μg/kg aflatoxins and 14 mg/kg fumonisins; or experiment 2: 180 μg/kg aflatoxins and 9 mg/kg fumonisins, and 1 mg/kg deoxynivalenol) and YCWE (0% versus 0.2%). Growth performance, blood, gut health and microbiome, and apparent ileal digestibility (AID) data were evaluated. In experiment 1, mycotoxins reduced ADG and G:F, and duodenal IgG, whereas in jejunum, YCWE increased IgG and reduced villus width. In experiment 2, mycotoxins reduced BW, ADG, and ADFI. Mycotoxins reduced ADG, which was recovered by YCWE. Mycotoxins reduced the AID of nutrients evaluated and increased protein carbonyl, whereas mycotoxins and YCWE increased the AID of the nutrients and reduced protein carbonyl. Mycotoxins reduced villus height, proportion of Ki-67-positive cells, and increased IgA and the proportion of bacteria with mycotoxin-degrading ability, whereas YCWE tended to increase villus height and reduced IgA and the proportion of pathogenic bacteria in jejunum. The YCWE effects were more evident in promoting gut health and growth in nursery pigs, which showed higher susceptibility to mycotoxin effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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14 pages, 1130 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Calcination Enhances the Aflatoxin and Zearalenone Binding Efficiency of a Tunisian Clay

by Roua Rejeb, Gunther Antonissen, Marthe De Boevre, Christ’l Detavernier, Mario Van de Velde, Sarah De Saeger, Richard Ducatelle, Madiha Hadj Ayed and Achraf Ghorbal

Toxins 2019, 11(10), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100602 - 16 Oct 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5268

Abstract

Clays are known to have promising adsorbing characteristics, and are used as feed additives to overcome the negative effects of mycotoxicosis in livestock farming. Modification of clay minerals by heat treatment, also called calcination, can alter their adsorption characteristics. Little information, however, is available on the effect of calcination with respect to mycotoxin binding. The purpose of this study was to characterize a Tunisian clay before and after calcination (at 550 °C), and to investigate the effectiveness of the thermal treatment of this clay on its aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), G1 (AFG1), B2 (AFB2), G2 (AFG2), and zearalenone (ZEN) adsorption capacity. Firstly, the purified clay (CP) and calcined clay (CC) were characterized with X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR-IR), cation exchange capacity (CEC), specific surface area (S_BET), and point of zero charge (pH_PZC) measurements. Secondly, an in vitro model that simulated the pH conditions of the monogastric gastrointestinal tract was used to evaluate the binding efficiency of the tested clays when artificially mixed with aflatoxins and zearalenone. The tested clay consisted mainly of smectite and illite. Purified and calcined clay had similar chemical compositions. After heat treatment, however, some changes in the mineralogical and textural properties were observed. The calcination decreased the cation exchange capacity and the specific surface, whereas the pore size was increased. Both purified and calcined clay had a binding efficacy of over 90% for AFB1 under simulated poultry GI tract conditions. Heat treatment of the clay increased the adsorption of AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 related to the increase in pore size of the clay by the calcination process. ZEN adsorption also increased by calcination, albeit to a more stable level at pH 3 rather than at pH 7. In conclusion, calcination of clay minerals enhanced the adsorption of aflatoxins and mostly of AFG1 and AFG2 at neutral pH of the gastrointestinal tract, and thus are associated with protection against the toxic effects of aflatoxins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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12 pages, 467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Activity of Neem (Azadirachta indica) Oil on Growth and Ochratoxin A Production by Aspergillus carbonarius Isolates

by Mariana Paiva Rodrigues, Andrea Luciana Astoreca, Águida Aparecida de Oliveira, Lauranne Alves Salvato, Gabriela Lago Biscoto, Luiz Antonio Moura Keller, Carlos Alberto da Rocha Rosa, Lilia Renée Cavaglieri, Maria Isabel de Azevedo and Kelly Moura Keller

Toxins 2019, 11(10), 579; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11100579 - 5 Oct 2019

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4835

Abstract

Aspergillus carbonarius is a saprobic filamentous fungus, food spoiling fungus and a producer of ochratoxin A (OTA) mycotoxin. In this study, the in vitro antifungal activity of neem oil (0.12% p/p of azadirachtin) was evaluated against the growth of six strains of A. carbonarius and the production of OTA. Four different concentrations of neem oil were tested in addition to three incubation times. Only the concentration of 0.3% of neem oil inhibited more than 95% of the strain’s growth (97.6% ± 0.5%), while the use of 0.5% and 1.0% of neem oil showed lower antifungal activity, 40.2% ± 3.1 and 64.7% ± 1.1, respectively. There was a complete inhibition of OTA production with 0.1% and 0.3% neem oil in the four strains isolated in the laboratory from grapes. The present study shows that neem essential oil can be further evaluated as an auxiliary method for the reduction of mycelial growth and OTA production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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11 pages, 556 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Naturally Contaminated Substrates on Alphitobius diaperinus and Hermetia illucens: Uptake and Excretion of Mycotoxins

by Giulia Leni, Martina Cirlini, Johan Jacobs, Stefaan Depraetere, Natasja Gianotten, Stefano Sforza and Chiara Dall’Asta

Toxins 2019, 11(8), 476; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11080476 - 18 Aug 2019

Cited by 34 | Viewed by 5062

Abstract

Insects are considered a suitable alternative feed for livestock production and their use is nowadays regulated in the European Union by the European Commission Regulation No. 893/2017. Insects have the ability to grow on a different spectrum of substrates, which could be naturally contaminated by mycotoxins. In the present work, the mycotoxin uptake and/or excretion in two different insect species, Alphitobius diaperinus (Lesser Mealworm, LM) and Hermetia illucens (Black Soldier Fly, BSF), grown on naturally contaminated substrates, was evaluated. Among all the substrates of growth tested, the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin 1 and 2 (FB1 and FB2) and zearalenone (ZEN) were found in those based on wheat and/or corn. No mycotoxins were detected in BSF larvae, while quantifiable amount of DON and FB1 were found in LM larvae, although in lower concentration than those detected in the growing substrates and in the residual fractions. Mass balance calculations indicated that BSF and LM metabolized mycotoxins in forms not yet known, accumulating them in their body or excreting in the faeces. Further studies are required in this direction due to the future employment of insects as feedstuff. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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16 pages, 1060 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Target Analysis and Retrospective Screening of Multiple Mycotoxins in Pet Food Using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS

by Luigi Castaldo, Giulia Graziani, Anna Gaspari, Luana Izzo, Josefa Tolosa, Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco and Alberto Ritieni

Toxins 2019, 11(8), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11080434 - 24 Jul 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4220

Abstract

A comprehensive strategy combining a quantitative method for 28 mycotoxins and a post-target screening for other 245 fungal and bacterial metabolites in dry pet food samples were developed using an acetonitrile-based extraction and an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS) method. The proposed method showed satisfactory validation results according to Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. Average recoveries from 72 to 108% were obtained for all studied mycotoxins, and the intra-/inter-day precision were below 9 and 14%, respectively. Results showed mycotoxin contamination in 99% of pet food samples (n = 89) at concentrations of up to hundreds µg/kg, with emerging Fusarium mycotoxins being the most commonly detected mycotoxins. All positive samples showed co-occurrence of mycotoxins with the simultaneous presence of up to 16 analytes per sample. In the retrospective screening, up to 54 fungal metabolites were tentatively identified being cyclopiazonic acid, paspalitrem A, fusaric acid, and macrosporin, the most commonly detected analytes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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13 pages, 1245 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pig Urinary Concentration of Mycotoxins and Metabolites Reflects Regional Differences, Mycotoxin Intake and Feed Contaminations

by Lucia Gambacorta, Monica Olsen and Michele Solfrizzo

Toxins 2019, 11(7), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11070378 - 30 Jun 2019

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4064

Abstract

The determination of mycotoxin and metabolite concentrations in human and animal urine is currently used for risk assessment and mycotoxin intake measurement. In this study, pig urine (n = 195) was collected at slaughterhouses in 2012 by the Swedish National Food Agency in three counties representing East, South and West regions of Sweden. Urinary concentrations of four mycotoxins, (deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), and ochratoxin A (OTA)), and four key metabolites, (deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁, biomarker of AFB₁), α-zearalenol (α-ZOL), and β-zearalenol (β-ZOL)) were identified and measured by UPLC-MS/MS. Statistically significant regional differences were detected for both total DON (DON + DOM-1) and total ZEA (ZEA + α-ZOL + β-ZOL) concentrations in pig urine from the three regions. These regional differences were in good agreement with the occurrence of Fusarium graminearum mycotoxins (DON + ZEA) in cereal grains harvested in 2011 in Sweden. There were no statistically significant differences in FB₁, AFM₁ and OTA urinary concentrations in pigs from the three regions. The overall incidence of positive samples was high for total ZEA (99–100%), total DON (96–100%) and OTA (85–95%), medium for FB₁ (30–61%) and low for AFM₁ (0–13%) in the three regions. Urinary mycotoxin biomarker concentrations were used to estimate mycotoxin intake and the level of mycotoxins in feeds consumed by the monitored pigs. The back-calculated levels of mycotoxins in feeds were low with the exception of seven samples that were higher the European limits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

31 pages, 553 KiB

Open AccessReview

In-Vitro Cell Culture for Efficient Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure, Toxicity and Risk Mitigation

by Ran Xu, Niel A. Karrow, Umesh K. Shandilya, Lv-hui Sun and Haruki Kitazawa

Toxins 2020, 12(3), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12030146 - 27 Feb 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 5174

Abstract

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary fungal metabolites that commonly contaminate crops and food by-products and thus, animal feed. Ingestion of mycotoxins can lead to mycotoxicosis in both animals and humans, and at subclinical concentrations may affect animal production and adulterate feed and animal by-products. Mycotoxicity mechanisms of action (MOA) are largely unknown, and co-contamination, which is often the case, raises the likelihood of mycotoxin interactions. Mitigation strategies for reducing the risk of mycotoxicity are diverse and may not necessarily provide protection against all mycotoxins. These factors, as well as the species-specific risk of toxicity, collectively make an assessment of exposure, toxicity, and risk mitigation very challenging and costly; thus, in-vitro cell culture models provide a useful tool for their initial assessment. Since ingestion is the most common route of mycotoxin exposure, the intestinal epithelial barrier comprised of epithelial cells (IECs) and immune cells such as macrophages, represents ground zero where mycotoxins are absorbed, biotransformed, and elicit toxicity. This article aims to review different in-vitro IEC or co-culture models that can be used for assessing mycotoxin exposure, toxicity, and risk mitigation, and their suitability and limitations for the safety assessment of animal foods and food by-products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

18 pages, 325 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Decontamination of Mycotoxin-Contaminated Feedstuffs and Compound Feed

by Radmilo Čolović, Nikola Puvača, Federica Cheli, Giuseppina Avantaggiato, Donato Greco, Olivera Đuragić, Jovana Kos and Luciano Pinotti

Toxins 2019, 11(11), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins11110617 - 25 Oct 2019

Cited by 135 | Viewed by 8858

Abstract

Mycotoxins are known worldwide as fungus-produced toxins that adulterate a wide heterogeneity of raw feed ingredients and final products. Consumption of mycotoxins-contaminated feed causes a plethora of harmful responses from acute toxicity to many persistent health disorders with lethal outcomes; such as mycotoxicosis when ingested by animals. Therefore, the main task for feed producers is to minimize the concentration of mycotoxin by applying different strategies aimed at minimizing the risk of mycotoxin effects on animals and human health. Once mycotoxins enter the production chain it is hard to eliminate or inactivate them. This paper examines the most recent findings on different processes and strategies for the reduction of toxicity of mycotoxins in animals. The review gives detailed information about the decontamination approaches to mitigate mycotoxin contamination of feedstuffs and compound feed, which could be implemented in practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxin Contamination Management Tools and Efficient Strategies in Feed Industry)

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