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Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (29 February 2024) | Viewed by 39823

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Dr. Liliana J.G. Silva

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LAQV, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Polo III, Azinhaga de Stª Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
Interests: environmental and food safety; mycotoxins, pharmaceuticals, and other contaminants in foods and biological fluids; human exposure evaluation; biomonitoring
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Dear Colleagues,

Human health is largely determined by diet. A recommended diet should be able to provide sufficient nu-trients and reduced levels of pathogenic microorganisms, as well as chemical contaminants. Mycotoxins are xenobiotics of biological origin, more specifically fungal, present in food, which affect animal and human health, even when consumed in subtoxic doses, due to continuous ingestion throughout life.

Mycotoxins are distributed worldwide, and given their incidence in cereals, their presence in foods derived from them is clear. In the midst of the global economy, production, storage, distribution, and marketing circuits can enhance this issue; in addition, climate change can promote the development of fungi and possible contamination by mycotoxins.

The contamination of food by mycotoxins poses important problems for food security and public health, in particular with regard to the most vulnerable populations. These toxins, known to produce nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, immunosuppression, estrogenic properties, and carcinogenicity, are found concomitantly in food, interacting with each other, producing additive and/or synergistic effects, but they are still rarely studied.

The biggest obstacle to a reliable risk assessment is the lack of information regarding human exposure to chemical contaminants. Biomonitoring makes it possible to measure the exposure of each individual through its determination and/or its metabolites and biomarkers of effect in biological fluids or tissues.

In this sense, this Special Issue, which welcomes both original research articles and comprehensive reviews, will gather current knowledge on mycotoxins, namely their risk assessment, biomonitoring, and toxicology, including the following topics: occurrence and risk assessment, toxicology, bioaccessibility, bioavailability and reduction and biomonitoring studies. Novel methodologies to study these research topics are also en-couraged.

Dr. Liliana J.G. Silva
Guest Editor

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Keywords

mycotoxins
occurrence
risk assessment
toxicology
bioaccessibility
bioavailability
reduction
biomonitoring

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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19 pages, 878 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure and Associated Risk in Pregnant Dutch Women: The Human Biomonitoring Approach

by Hannah P. McKeon, Marloes A. A. Schepens, Annick D. van den Brand, Marjolein H. de Jong, Marleen M. H. J. van Gelder, Marijn L. Hesselink, Marta M. Sopel and Marcel J. B. Mengelers

Toxins 2024, 16(6), 278; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16060278 - 18 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1515

Abstract

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by various fungi that can contaminate food crops, which, in turn, may lead to human exposure. Chronic exposure to mycotoxins can cause adverse health effects including reproductive and developmental toxicity. Pregnant women and their foetuses present a vulnerable group for exposure to mycotoxins that can cross the placenta. Human biomonitoring of mycotoxins provides a real-life approach to estimate internal exposure. In this pilot study, 24-h urine samples from 36 pregnant Dutch women were analysed for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), total deoxynivalenol (DON), de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), total zearalenone (ZEN), total α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), total β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) and total zearalanone (ZAN), where ‘total’ refers to mycotoxins and their conjugated forms. Serum samples from these women were analysed for fumonisin B1 (FB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA). All samples were measured using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The most prevalent mycotoxins were total DON, total ZEN and OTA, with a detection frequency of 100%. DOM-1, total α-ZEL and total β-ZEL were detected but to a lesser extent, while AFM1, total ZAN and FB1 were undetected. Median concentrations were 4.75 μg total DON/L, 0.0350 μg DOM-1/L, 0.0413 μg total ZEN/L, 0.0379 μg total α-ZEL/L, 0.0189 μg total β-ZEL/L, and 0.121 μg OTA/L. The calculated median concentration for total ZEN and its metabolites was 0.105 μg/L. Based on two separate risk assessment approaches, total DON exposure in this group was considered to be of low concern. Similarly, exposure to total ZEN and its metabolites in this group was of low concern. For OTA, the risk of non-neoplastic effects was of low concern based on exposure in this group, and the risk of neoplastic effects was of low concern in the majority of participants in this group. The findings of this pilot study confirm the presence of mycotoxins in the urine and serum of pregnant Dutch women, with total DON, total ZEN, and OTA most frequently detected. Exposure to all measured mycotoxins was considered to be of low concern in this group, except for exposure to OTA, which was of low concern for the majority of participants. The study’s findings offer valuable insights but should be confirmed using a larger and more diverse sample of the Dutch general population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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21 pages, 588 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dietary Exposure and Risk Assessment of Multi-Mycotoxins (AFB1, AFM1, OTA, OTB, DON, T-2 and HT-2) in the Lebanese Food Basket Consumed by Adults: Findings from the Updated Lebanese National Consumption Survey through a Total Diet Study Approach

by Maha Hoteit, Zahraa Abbass, Rouaa Daou, Nikolaos Tzenios, Lamis Chmeis, Joyce Haddad, Mohamad Chahine, Elham Al Manasfi, Abdulrahman Chahine, Omasyarifa Binti Jamal Poh and André El Khoury

Toxins 2024, 16(3), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16030158 - 19 Mar 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2449

Abstract

Mycotoxins have been linked to adverse health impacts, including liver cancer and kidney diseases. The objectives of the current study were to evaluate the dietary exposure of Lebanese adults to multi-mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), ochratoxin A (OTA), ochratoxin B (OTB), deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 and HT-2) and to assess their associated health risks. Hence, a nationally representative sample of 449 participants aged 18-64 years old were interviewed to obtain their socio-demographic characteristics, food consumption data and exposure estimates. A food frequency questionnaire and 24 h-recall were used to collect data. The concentration of mycotoxins in all foods consumed by the participants was collected from previous national published studies. The estimated daily intake (EDI), the hazard quotient (HQ) and the margin of exposure (MOE) were calculated. The total exposure to AFB1, AFM1, OTA and DON was 1.26, 0.39, 4.10 and 411.18 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. The MOE to AFB1, AFM1, OTA and DON in the Lebanese food basket was 316, 1454, 3539 and 510, respectively, indicating high health-related risks. Per food items, the MOE to AFB1 was below 10,000 in cereals (466.5), mainly in rice (827.9) and Burgul (4868.5). Similarly, the MOE to OTA in cereals was 1439, in which bread (4022), rice (7589) and bulgur (7628) were considered unsafe. Moreover, the MOE to DON in cereals (605) is alarming, especially in bread (632) and manakesh (6879). The MOE to AFM1 in dairy products was 1454, indicating health-related risks with a focus on yogurt (9788) and labneh (8153). As for the herbs/spices group and traditional dishes, the MOE to AFB1 was relatively lower than 10,000 (3690 and 1625, respectively), with a focus on thyme (2624) and kishik (3297), respectively. It is noteworthy that the MOE to DON and the MOE to OTA in traditional foods and coffee were lower than 10,000 (8047 and 8867, respectively). All hazard quotient (HQ) values were below 1, except the HQ value of milk and dairy products (1.96). The intake of some food groups varied between age categories, corresponding to differences in EDI between them. Thus, it is essential to put control measures in place to decrease the contamination and exposure to mycotoxins by Lebanese consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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9 pages, 1873 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Assessment of Ozone-Treated Deoxynivalenol by Measuring Cytotoxicity and Wheat Quality

by Chao Sun, Chuncai Mao, Zhie Zhou, Jianhui Xiao, Wenwen Zhou, Juan Du and Jun Li

Toxins 2024, 16(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16020064 - 25 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1432

Abstract

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a trichothecene mycotoxin, could lead to cytotoxicity in both animal bodies and plant seed cells. Ozone degradation technology has been applied to DON control. However, the safety and quality of the contaminated grain after DON degradation are largely obscured. In this work, we evaluated the cytotoxicity of ozone-treated DON through seed germination experiments and cytotoxicity tests. Cell experiments showed that the inhibition rate of HepG2 viability gradually increased within the concentrations of 1–10 mg/L of DON, alongside which an IC50 (half maximal inhibitory concentration) of 9.1 mg/L was determined. In contrast, degrading DON had no significant inhibitory effect on cell growth. Moreover, a 1–10 mg/L concentration of DON increased production of a large amount of reactive oxygen radicals in HepG2, with obvious fluorescence color development. However, fluorescence intensity decreased after DON degradation. Further, DON at a concentration of >1 mg/L significantly inhibited the germination of mung bean seeds, whereas no significant inhibition of their germination or growth were observed if DON degraded. Changes in total protein content, fatty acid value, and starch content were insignificant in wheat samples suffering ozone degradation, compared to the untreated group. Lastly, the ozone-treated wheat samples exhibited higher tenacity and whiteness. Together, our study indicated that the toxicity of DON-contaminated wheat was significantly reduced after ozone degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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12 pages, 1451 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Risk of Exposure to Aflatoxin B1 through the Consumption of Peanuts among Children Aged 6–59 Months in the Lusaka District, Zambia

by Grace Musawa, Flavien Nsoni Bumbangi, Chisoni Mumba, Branly Kilola Mbunga, Gladys Phiri, Vistorina Benhard, Henson Kainga, Mkuzi Banda, Enock Ndaki, Ethel Mkandawire and John Bwalya Muma

Toxins 2024, 16(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16010050 - 17 Jan 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2525

Abstract

Aflatoxins B1 (AFB1) are fungi-produced toxins found in crops like peanuts, maize, and tree nuts. They constitute a public health concern due to their genotoxic and carcinogenic effects. A deterministic exposure risk assessment to AFB1 through the consumption of peanuts was conducted on children using the Margin of Exposure (MOE) and the liver cancer risk approaches. Data on AFB1 concentrations in peanuts, quantities of peanut consumption, and the weights of the children were obtained from the literature. Generally, MOE values were below the safe margin of 10,000, ranging between 3.68 and 0.14, 754.34 and 27.33, and 11,428.57 and 419.05 for the high (0.0466 ng/kg), median (0.00023 ng/kg), and low (0.000015 ng/kg) AFB1 concentration levels, respectively. The liver cancer risk upon lifetime exposure to highly AFB1-contaminated peanuts (0.0466 ng/kg) ranged between 1 and 23 (95% lower bound) and 2 and 50 (95% upper bound) cases in a million individuals: a public health concern. A low liver cancer risk (≤1 case in a billion individuals upon lifetime exposure) was shown at median and low AFB1 concentrations. However, the risk of AFB1 should be a priority for risk management since its harmful effects could be potentiated by poor diet, high malnutrition levels, and other disease burdens in Zambia’s children. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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11 pages, 502 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aflatoxin M₁ Analysis in Urine of Mill Workers in Bangladesh: A Pilot Study

by Nurshad Ali, Ahsan Habib, Firoz Mahmud, Humaira Rashid Tuba and Gisela H. Degen

Toxins 2024, 16(1), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16010045 - 14 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1808

Abstract

Presence of aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) in food and feed is a serious problem, especially in developing countries. Human exposure to this carcinogenic mycotoxin can occur through dietary intake, but also through inhalation or dermal contact when handling and processing AFB₁-contaminated crops. A suitable biomarker of AFB₁ exposure by all routes is the occurrence of its hydroxylated metabolite aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in urine. To assess mycotoxin exposure in mill workers in Bangladesh, we analyzed AFM₁ levels in urine samples of this population group who may encounter both dietary and occupational AFB₁ exposure. In this pilot study, a total of 76 participants (51 mill workers and 25 controls) were enrolled from the Sylhet region of Bangladesh. Urine samples were collected from people who worked in rice, wheat, maize and spice mills and from controls with no occupational contact to these materials. A questionnaire was used to collect information on basic characteristics and normal food habits of all participants. Levels of AFM₁ in the urine samples were determined by a competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. AFM₁ was detected in 96.1% of mill workers’ urine samples with a range of LOD (40) of 217.7 pg/mL and also in 92% of control subject’s urine samples with a range of LOD of 307.0 pg/mL). The mean level of AFM₁ in mill workers’ urine (106.5 ± 35.0 pg/mL) was slightly lower than that of the control group (123.3 ± 52.4 pg/mL), whilst the mean AFM₁ urinary level adjusted for creatinine was higher in mill workers (142.1 ± 126.1 pg/mg crea) than in the control group (98.5 ± 71.2 pg/mg crea). Yet, these differences in biomarker levels were not statistically significant. Slightly different mean urinary AFM₁ levels were observed between maize mill, spice mill, rice mill, and wheat mill workers, yet biomarker values are based on a small number of individuals in these subgroups. No significant correlations were found between the study subjects’ urine AFM₁ levels and their consumption of some staple food items, except for a significant correlation observed between urinary biomarker levels and consumption of groundnuts. In conclusion, this pilot study revealed the frequent presence of AFM₁ in the urine of mill workers in Bangladesh and those of concurrent controls with dietary AFB₁ exposure only. The absence of a statistical difference in mean biomarker levels for workers and controls suggests that in the specific setting, no extra occupational exposure occurred. Yet, the high prevalence of non-negligible AFM₁ levels in the collected urines encourage further studies in Bangladesh regarding aflatoxin exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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17 pages, 1210 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycotoxins in Rice Correlate with Other Contaminants? A Pilot Study of the Portuguese Scenario and Human Risk Assessment

by Liliana J. G. Silva, André M. P. T. Pereira, Sofia Duarte, Inês Pedro, Catarina Perdigão, Alexandra Silva, Celeste M. Lino, Anabela Almeida and Angelina Pena

Toxins 2023, 15(4), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15040291 - 17 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2281

Abstract

Rice is the second most important cereal crop and is vital for the diet of billions of people. However, its consumption can increase human exposure to chemical contaminants, namely mycotoxins and metalloids. Our goal was to evaluate the occurrence and human exposure of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), and inorganic arsenic (InAs) in 36 rice samples produced and commercialized in Portugal and evaluate their correlation. The analysis of mycotoxins involved ELISA, with limits of detection (LODs) of 0.8, 1 and 1.75 μg kg⁻¹ for OTA, AFB1, and ZEN, respectively. InAs analysis was carried out by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS; LOD = 3.3 μg kg⁻¹). No sample showed contamination by OTA. AFB1 was present in 2 (4.8%) samples (1.96 and 2.20 μg kg⁻¹), doubling the European maximum permitted level (MPL). Concerning ZEN, 88.89% of the rice samples presented levels above the LOD up to 14.25 µg kg⁻¹ (average of 2.75 µg kg⁻¹). Regarding InAs, every sample presented concentration values above the LOD up to 100.0 µg kg⁻¹ (average of 35.3 µg kg⁻¹), although none surpassed the MPL (200 µg kg⁻¹). No correlation was observed between mycotoxins and InAs contamination. As for human exposure, only AFB1 surpassed the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake. Children were recognized as the most susceptible group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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9 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxicokinetics of a Single Oral Dose of OTA on Dezhou Male Donkeys

by Ruifen Kang, Honglei Qu, Yanxin Guo, Mengjie Zhang, Tianze Fu, Shimeng Huang, Lihong Zhao, Jianyun Zhang, Cheng Ji and Qiugang Ma

Toxins 2023, 15(2), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020088 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2134

Abstract

Ochratoxin (OTA) is widely present in a wide range of foods and feeds, causing adverse effects on animals and humans. This study aims to explore the toxicokinetics of OTA-contaminated materials on the Dezhou male donkey. Donkeys received a single orally dose of 2500 μg OTA/kg BW, obtained from Aspergillus ochraceus culture material. The concentrations of OTA in plasma collected at 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45 min, and at 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 24, 48, 72, 96 and 120 h were detected by HPLC. OTA eliminated in urine and feces were quantified at 6-h intervals up to 24 h and then at 4-h intervals up to 120 h. The results suggested that the maximum concentration of OTA in plasma was observed at 12 h after administration, with a mean value of 10.34 μg/mL. The total excretion in both urine and feces was about 10% of the intake until 120 h. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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10 pages, 733 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Citrinin Exposure in Germany: Urine Biomarker Analysis in Children and Adults

by Gisela H. Degen, Jörg Reinders, Martin Kraft, Wolfgang Völkel, Felicia Gerull, Rafael Burghardt, Silvia Sievering, Jennifer Engelmann, Yvonni Chovolou, Jan G. Hengstler and Hermann Fromme

Toxins 2023, 15(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15010026 - 30 Dec 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2312 | Correction

Abstract

Citrinin (CIT), a mycotoxin known to exert nephrotoxicity, is a contaminant in food and feed. Since CIT contamination is not regularly analyzed, data on its occurrence and especially levels in food commodities are insufficient for conducting a conventional exposure assessment. Yet, human biomonitoring, i.e., an analysis of CIT and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone (DH-CIT) in urine samples allows to estimate exposure. This study investigated CIT exposure in young (2–14 years) and adult (24–61 years) residents of three federal states in Germany. A total of 179 urine samples from children and 142 from adults were collected and analyzed by a targeted LC-MS/MS based method for presence of CIT and DH-CIT. At least one of the biomarkers was detected and quantified in all urines, which indicated a widespread dietary exposure to the mycotoxin in Germany. Interestingly, the biomarker concentrations of CIT_total (sum of CIT and DH-CIT) were higher in children’s urine (range 0.05–7.62 ng/mL; median of 0.54 ng/mL) than in urines from adults (range 0.04–3.5 ng/mL; median 0.3 ng/mL). The biomarker levels (CIT_total) of individual urines served to calculate the probable daily CIT intake, for comparison to a value of 0.2 µg/kg bw/day defined as ‘level of no concern for nephrotoxicity’ by the European Food Safety Authority. The median exposure of German adults was 0.013 µg/kg b.w., with only one urine donor exceeding this provisional tolerable daily intake (pTDI) for CIT. The median exposure of children was 0.05 µg/kg bw per day (i.e., 25% of the pTDI); however, CIT exposure in 12 individuals (6.3% of our study group) exceeded the limit value, with a maximum intake of 0.46 µg/kg b.w. per day. In conclusion, these results show evidence for non-negligible exposure to CIT in some individuals in Germany, mainly in children. Therefore, further biomonitoring studies and investigations aimed to identify the major sources of CIT exposure in food commodities are required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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Review

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38 pages, 4239 KiB

Open AccessReview

Monitoring Mycotoxin Exposure in Food-Producing Animals (Cattle, Pig, Poultry, and Sheep)

by Borja Muñoz-Solano, Elena Lizarraga Pérez and Elena González-Peñas

Toxins 2024, 16(5), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins16050218 - 9 May 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2262

Abstract

Food-producing animals are exposed to mycotoxins through ingestion, inhalation, or dermal contact with contaminated materials. This exposure can lead to serious consequences for animal health, affects the cost and quality of livestock production, and can even impact human health through foods of animal origin. Therefore, controlling mycotoxin exposure in animals is of utmost importance. A systematic literature search was conducted in this study to retrieve the results of monitoring exposure to mycotoxins in food-producing animals over the last five years (2019–2023), considering both external exposure (analysis of feed) and internal exposure (analysis of biomarkers in biological matrices). The most commonly used analytical technique for both approaches is LC-MS/MS due to its capability for multidetection. Several mycotoxins, especially those that are regulated (ochratoxin A, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, fumonisins, T-2, and HT-2), along with some emerging mycotoxins (sterigmatocystin, nivalenol, beauvericin, enniantins among others), were studied in 13,818 feed samples worldwide and were typically detected at low levels, although they occasionally exceeded regulatory levels. The occurrence of multiple exposure is widespread. Regarding animal biomonitoring, the primary objective of the studies retrieved was to study mycotoxin metabolism after toxin administration. Some compounds have been suggested as biomarkers of exposure in the plasma, urine, and feces of animal species such as pigs and poultry. However, further research is required, including many other mycotoxins and animal species, such as cattle and sheep. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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15 pages, 2156 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mycotoxins’ Prevalence in Food Industry By-Products: A Systematic Review

by Paloma Lopes, M. Madalena C. Sobral, Guido R. Lopes, Zita E. Martins, Claúdia P. Passos, Sílvia Petronilho and Isabel M. P. L. V. O. Ferreira

Toxins 2023, 15(4), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15040249 - 29 Mar 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3386

Abstract

The recovery of biomolecules from food industry by-products is of major relevance for a circular economy strategy. However, by-products’ contamination with mycotoxins represents a drawback for their reliable valorization for food and feed, hampering their application range, especially as food ingredients. Mycotoxin contamination occurs even in dried matrices. There is a need for the implantation of monitoring programs, even for by-products used as animal feed, since very high levels can be reached. This systematic review aims to identify the food by-products that have been studied from 2000 until 2022 (22 years) concerning mycotoxins’ contamination, distribution, and prevalence in those by-products. PRISMA (“Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses”) protocol was performed via two databases (PubMed and SCOPUS) to summarize the research findings. After the screening and selection process, the full texts of eligible articles (32 studies) were evaluated, and data from 16 studies were considered. A total of 6 by-products were assessed concerning mycotoxin content; these include distiller dried grain with solubles, brewer’s spent grain, brewer’s spent yeast, cocoa shell, grape pomace, and sugar beet pulp. Frequent mycotoxins in these by-products are AFB₁, OTA, FBs, DON, and ZEA. The high prevalence of contaminated samples, which surpasses the limits established for human consumption, thus limiting their valorization as ingredients in the food industry. Co-contamination is frequent, which can cause synergistic interactions and amplify their toxicity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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16 pages, 564 KiB

Open AccessReview

Aflatoxin Contamination: An Overview on Health Issues, Detection and Management Strategies

by Meera Mohamed Alameri, Amanda Shen-Yee Kong, Mariam Nasser Aljaafari, Hajer Al Ali, Khadija Eid, Maryam Al Sallagi, Wan-Hee Cheng, Aisha Abushelaibi, Swee-Hua Erin Lim, Jiun-Yan Loh and Kok-Song Lai

Toxins 2023, 15(4), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15040246 - 28 Mar 2023

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 10788

Abstract

Aflatoxins (AFs) represent one of the main mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, with the most prevalent and lethal subtypes being AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2. AFs are responsible for causing significant public health issues and economic concerns that affect consumers and farmers globally. Chronic exposure to AFs has been linked to liver cancer, oxidative stress, and fetal growth abnormalities among other health-related risks. Although there are various technologies, such as physical, chemical, and biological controls that have been employed to alleviate the toxic effects of AF, there is still no clearly elucidated universal method available to reduce AF levels in food and feed; the only mitigation is early detection of the toxin in the management of AF contamination. Numerous detection methods, including cultures, molecular techniques, immunochemical, electrochemical immunosensor, chromatographic, and spectroscopic means, are used to determine AF contamination in agricultural products. Recent research has shown that incorporating crops with higher resistance, such as sorghum, into animal feed can reduce the risk of AF contamination in milk and cheese. This review provides a current overview of the health-related risks of chronic dietary AF exposure, recent detection techniques, and management strategies to guide future researchers in developing better detection and management strategies for this toxin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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62 pages, 1792 KiB

Open AccessReview

Type B Trichothecenes in Cereal Grains and Their Products: Recent Advances on Occurrence, Toxicology, Analysis and Post-Harvest Decontamination Strategies

by Mohamed A. Gab-Allah, Kihwan Choi and Byungjoo Kim

Toxins 2023, 15(2), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15020085 - 17 Jan 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4947

Abstract

Type B trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol) and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3G) are secondary toxic metabolites produced mainly by mycotoxigenic Fusarium fungi and have been recognized as natural contaminants in cereals and cereal-based foods. The latest studies have proven the various negative effects of type B trichothecenes on human health. Due to the widespread occurrence of Fusarium species, contamination by these mycotoxins has become an important aspect for public health and agro-food systems worldwide. Hence, their monitoring and surveillance in various foods have received a significant deal of attention in recent years. In this review, an up-to-date overview of the occurrence profile of major type B trichothecenes and DON-3G in cereal grains and their toxicological implications are outlined. Furthermore, current trends in analytical methodologies for their determination are overviewed. This review also covers the factors affecting the production of these mycotoxins, as well as the management strategies currently employed to mitigate their contamination in foods. Information presented in this review provides good insight into the progress that has been achieved in the last years for monitoring type B trichothecenes and DON-3G, and also would help the researchers in their further investigations on metabolic pathway analysis and toxicological studies of these Fusarium mycotoxins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins: Risk Assessment, Biomonitoring and Toxicology)

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