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Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II
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Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2021) | Viewed by 33274

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Faizal Careem

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
Interests: avian coronavirus; pathogenesis; molecular epidemiology of avian viruses; control of avian viruses; innate immune response; cell-mediated immune response; chicken
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The vast majority of disease-causing avian viruses use respiratory mucosa for host entry. Although there are a number of effective disease prevention strategies in place on poultry farms, viruses such as avian influenza virus, Newcastle disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus, and infectious laryngotracheitis virus continue to pose major constraints for the sustainability of the poultry industry globally. With a view of the economic and public health importance of avian respiratory viral infections, the focus of this Special Issue will be on the most recent progress in the research of these viral infections, including on evolution of the virus, pathogenesis, virus–host interactions, vaccine development, and the development of novel control measures.

Prof. Dr. Faizal Careem
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • avian influenza virus
  • Newcastle disease virus
  • infectious bronchitis virus
  • infectious laryngotracheitis virus
  • virus evolution
  • pathogenesis
  • virus–host interaction
  • vaccine
  • innate immune response
  • adaptive immune response
  • adjuvant
  • avian

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

12 pages, 6285 KiB  
Article
Infection with IBV DMV/1639 at a Young Age Leads to Increased Incidence of Cystic Oviduct Formation Associated with False Layer Syndrome
by Adrea Mueller Slay, Monique Franca, Mark Jackwood and Brian Jordan
Viruses 2022, 14(5), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/v14050852 - 20 Apr 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3068
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is an avian coronavirus that causes respiratory disease but can affect the reproductive tract of laying-type chickens. If infection occurs in pullets, false layer syndrome, which is characterized by the development of large, fluid-filled cystic oviducts, can occur. Recently, [...] Read more.
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is an avian coronavirus that causes respiratory disease but can affect the reproductive tract of laying-type chickens. If infection occurs in pullets, false layer syndrome, which is characterized by the development of large, fluid-filled cystic oviducts, can occur. Recently, IBV strain DMV/1639 has been detected in parts of Canada and the U.S., where false layer syndrome has occurred, though it is not clear if IBV is the sole cause or if age at infection is an influencing variable. Our study investigates the role and timing of IBV infection on the development of false layer syndrome, using the IBV types DMV/1639 and Massachusetts (Mass). Six groups of 120 SPF chickens were challenged at either three, seven, or fourteen days of age, using either DMV/1639 or Mass IBV. Cystic oviducts were seen in all the challenged groups, and the pullets challenged at 14 days of age had fewer cystic oviducts than pullets challenged at 3 or 7 days of age. The highest percentage of severe histology lesion scores were seen in the 3-day challenge groups. The data collected in this experiment confirm that IBV DMV/1639 causes cystic oviducts and indicate that age at infection plays a role in the pathogenesis of false layer syndrome. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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9 pages, 1925 KiB  
Article
Temporal Dynamics of Influenza A(H5N1) Subtype before and after the Emergence of H5N8
by Fatma Amer, Ruiyun Li, Neveen Rabie, Mohamed H. El-Husseiny, Nahed Yehia, Naglaa M. Hagag, Mohamed Samy, Abdullah Selim, Mohamed K. Hassan, Wafaa M. M. Hassan, Abdel-Sattar Arafa, Åke Lundkvist, Momtaz A. Shahein and Mahmoud M. Naguib
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1565; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081565 - 7 Aug 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3390
Abstract
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses continue to circulate worldwide, causing numerous outbreaks among bird species and severe public health concerns. H5N1 and H5N8 are the two most fundamental HPAI subtypes detected in birds in the last two decades. The two viruses may [...] Read more.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses continue to circulate worldwide, causing numerous outbreaks among bird species and severe public health concerns. H5N1 and H5N8 are the two most fundamental HPAI subtypes detected in birds in the last two decades. The two viruses may compete with each other while sharing the same host population and, thus, suppress the spread of one of the viruses. In this study, we performed a statistical analysis to investigate the temporal correlation of the HPAI H5N1 and HPAI H5N8 subtypes using globally reported data in 2015–2020. This was joined with an in-depth analysis using data generated via our national surveillance program in Egypt. A total of 6412 outbreaks were reported worldwide during this period, with 39% (2529) as H5N1 and 61% (3883) as H5N8. In Egypt, 65% of positive cases were found in backyards, while only 12% were found in farms and 23% in live bird markets. Overall, our findings depict a trade-off between the number of positive H5N1 and H5N8 samples around early 2017, which is suggestive of the potential replacement between the two subtypes. Further research is still required to elucidate the underpinning mechanisms of this competitive dynamic. This, in turn, will implicate the design of effective strategies for disease control. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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12 pages, 3941 KiB  
Article
Molecular Biology and Pathological Process of an Infectious Bronchitis Virus with Enteric Tropism in Commercial Broilers
by Ana P. da Silva, Ruediger Hauck, Sabrina R. C. Nociti, Colin Kern, H. L. Shivaprasad, Huaijun Zhou and Rodrigo A. Gallardo
Viruses 2021, 13(8), 1477; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13081477 - 28 Jul 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2759
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) induces respiratory and urogenital disease in chickens. Although IBV replicates in the gastrointestinal tract, enteric lesions are uncommon. We have reported a case of runting-stunting syndrome in commercial broilers from which an IBV variant was isolated from the intestines. [...] Read more.
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) induces respiratory and urogenital disease in chickens. Although IBV replicates in the gastrointestinal tract, enteric lesions are uncommon. We have reported a case of runting-stunting syndrome in commercial broilers from which an IBV variant was isolated from the intestines. The isolate, CalEnt, demonstrated an enteric tissue tropism in chicken embryos and SPF chickens experimentally. Here, we determined the full genome of CalEnt and compared it to other IBV strains, in addition to comparing the pathobiology of CalEnt and M41 in commercial broilers. Despite the high whole-genome identity to other IBV strains, CalEnt is rather unique in its nucleotide composition. The S gene phylogenetic analyses showed great similarity between CalEnt and Cal 99. Clinically, vent staining was slightly more frequent in CalEnt-infected birds than those challenged with M41. Furthermore, IBV IHC detection was more evident and the viral shedding in feces was overall higher with the CalEnt challenge compared with M41. Despite underlying intestinal lesions caused by coccidiosis and salmonellosis vaccination, microscopic lesions in CalEnt-infected chickens were more severe than in M41-infected chickens or controls, supporting the enteric tropism of CalEnt. Further studies in SPF chickens are needed to determine the pathogenesis of the virus, its molecular mechanisms for the enteric tropism, and its influence in intestinal health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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13 pages, 1960 KiB  
Article
Genetic and Pathogenic Characterization of QX(GI-19)-Recombinant Infectious Bronchitis Viruses in South Korea
by So-Youn Youn, Ji-Youn Lee, You-Chan Bae, Yong-Kuk Kwon and Hye-Ryoung Kim
Viruses 2021, 13(6), 1163; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13061163 - 17 Jun 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3062
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis viruses (IBVs) are evolving continuously via genetic drift and genetic recombination, making disease prevention and control difficult. In this study, we undertook genetic and pathogenic characterization of recombinant IBVs isolated from chickens in South Korea between 2003 and 2019. Phylogenetic analysis [...] Read more.
Infectious bronchitis viruses (IBVs) are evolving continuously via genetic drift and genetic recombination, making disease prevention and control difficult. In this study, we undertook genetic and pathogenic characterization of recombinant IBVs isolated from chickens in South Korea between 2003 and 2019. Phylogenetic analysis showed that 46 IBV isolates belonged to GI-19, which includes nephropathogenic IBVs. Ten isolates formed a new cluster, the genomic sequences of which were different from those of reference sequences. Recombination events in the S1 gene were identified, with putative parental strains identified as QX-like, KM91-like, and GI-15. Recombination detection methods identified three patterns (rGI-19-I, rGI-19-II, and rGI-19-III). To better understand the pathogenicity of recombinant IBVs, we compared the pathogenicity of GI-19 with that of the rGI-19s. The results suggest that rGI-19s may be more likely to cause trachea infections than GI-19, whereas rGI-19s were less pathogenic in the kidney. Additionally, the pathogenicity of rGI-19s varied according to the genotype of the major parent. These results indicate that genetic recombination between heterologous strains belonging to different genotypes has occurred, resulting in the emergence of new recombinant IBVs in South Korea. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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9 pages, 1739 KiB  
Article
Genomic Analysis of Avian Infectious Bronchitis Viruses Recently Isolated in South Korea Reveals Multiple Introductions of GI-19 Lineage (QX Genotype)
by Hyuk-Chae Lee, Sol Jeong, Andrew Y. Cho, Kyu-Jik Kim, Jun-Young Kim, Dam-Hee Park, Hyun-Jin Kim, Jung-Hoon Kwon and Chang-Seon Song
Viruses 2021, 13(6), 1045; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13061045 - 31 May 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4112
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) was first identified in the 1930s and it imposes a major economic burden on the poultry industry. In particular, GI-19 lineage has spread globally and has evolved constantly since it was first detected in China. In this study, we [...] Read more.
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) was first identified in the 1930s and it imposes a major economic burden on the poultry industry. In particular, GI-19 lineage has spread globally and has evolved constantly since it was first detected in China. In this study, we analyzed S1 gene sequences from 60 IBVs isolated in South Korea. Two IBV lineages, GI-15 and GI-19, were identified in South Korea. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that there were six distinct subgroups (KM91-like, K40/09-like, and QX-like I to IV) of the South Korean GI-19 IBVs. Among them, QX-type III and IV subgroups, which are phylogenetically different from those reported in South Korea in the past, accounted for more than half of the total. Moreover, the phylogeographic analysis of the QX-like subgroups indicated at least four distinct introductions of GI-19 IBVs into South Korea during 2001–2020. The efficacy of commercialized vaccines against the recently introduced QX-like subgroups should be verified, and continuous international surveillance efforts and quarantine procedures should be enhanced to prevent the incursion of viruses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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8 pages, 1138 KiB  
Communication
Novel Clade 2.3.4.4b Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A H5N8 and H5N5 Viruses in Denmark, 2020
by Yuan Liang, Jakob N. Nissen, Jesper S. Krog, Solvej Ø. Breum, Ramona Trebbien, Lars E. Larsen and Charlotte K. Hjulsager
Viruses 2021, 13(5), 886; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13050886 - 11 May 2021
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 4408
Abstract
Since late 2020, outbreaks of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses belonging to clade 2.3.4.4b have emerged in Europe. To investigate the evolutionary history of these viruses, we performed genetic characterization on the first HPAI viruses found in Denmark during the autumn [...] Read more.
Since late 2020, outbreaks of H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses belonging to clade 2.3.4.4b have emerged in Europe. To investigate the evolutionary history of these viruses, we performed genetic characterization on the first HPAI viruses found in Denmark during the autumn of 2020. H5N8 viruses from 14 wild birds and poultry, as well as one H5N5 virus from a wild bird, were characterized by whole genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The Danish H5N8 viruses were found to be genetically similar to each other and to contemporary European clade 2.3.4.4b H5N8 viruses, while the Danish H5N5 virus was shown to be a unique genotype from the H5N5 viruses that circulated at the same time in Russia, Germany, and Belgium. Genetic analyses of one of the H5N8 viruses revealed the presence of a substitution (PB2-M64T) that is highly conserved in human seasonal influenza A viruses. Our analyses showed that the late 2020 clade 2.3.4.4b HPAI H5N8 viruses were most likely new incursions introduced by migrating birds to overwintering sites in Europe, rather than the result of continued circulation of H5N8 viruses from previous introductions to Europe in 2016/2017 and early 2020. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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16 pages, 8597 KiB  
Article
Genetic and Antigenic Characterization of Avian Avulavirus Type 6 (AAvV-6) Circulating in Canadian Wild Birds (2005–2017)
by Tamiko Hisanaga, Catherine Soos, Nicola Lewis, Oliver Lung, Matthew Suderman and Yohannes Berhane
Viruses 2021, 13(4), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13040543 - 24 Mar 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2232
Abstract
We describe for the first time the genetic and antigenic characterization of 18 avian avulavirus type-6 viruses (AAvV-6) that were isolated from wild waterfowl in the Americas over the span of 12 years. Only one of the AAvV-6 viruses isolated failed to hemagglutinate [...] Read more.
We describe for the first time the genetic and antigenic characterization of 18 avian avulavirus type-6 viruses (AAvV-6) that were isolated from wild waterfowl in the Americas over the span of 12 years. Only one of the AAvV-6 viruses isolated failed to hemagglutinate chicken red blood cells. We were able to obtain full genome sequences of 16 and 2 fusion gene sequences from the remaining 2 isolates. This is more than double the number of full genome sequences available at the NCBI database. These AAvV-6 viruses phylogenetically grouped into the 2 existing AAvV-6 genotype subgroups indicating the existence of an intercontinental epidemiological link with other AAvV-6 viruses isolated from migratory waterfowl from different Eurasian countries. Antigenic maps made using HI assay data for these isolates showed that the two genetic groups were also antigenically distinct. An isolate representing each genotype was inoculated in specific pathogen free (SPF) chickens, however, no clinical symptoms were observed. A duplex fusion gene based real-time assay for the detection and genotyping of AAvV-6 to genotype 1 and 2 was developed. Using the developed assay, the viral shedding pattern in the infected chickens was examined. The chickens infected with both genotypes were able to shed the virus orally for about a week, however, no significant cloacal shedding was detected in chickens of both groups. Chickens in both groups developed detectable levels of anti-hemagglutinin antibodies 7 days after infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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13 pages, 1945 KiB  
Article
Pathogenic and Transmission Potential of Wildtype and Chicken Embryo Origin (CEO) Vaccine Revertant Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus
by Ana Perez-Contreras, Catalina Barboza-Solis, Shahnas M. Najimudeen, Sylvia Checkley, Frank van der Meer, Tomy Joseph, Robin King, Madhu Ravi, Delores Peters, Kevin Fonseca, Carl A. Gagnon, Davor Ojkic and Mohamed Faizal Abdul-Careem
Viruses 2021, 13(4), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13040541 - 24 Mar 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2943
Abstract
Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an infectious upper respiratory tract disease that impacts the poultry industry worldwide. ILT is caused by an alphaherpesvirus commonly referred to as infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV). Vaccination with live attenuated vaccines is practiced regularly for the control of ILT. [...] Read more.
Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) is an infectious upper respiratory tract disease that impacts the poultry industry worldwide. ILT is caused by an alphaherpesvirus commonly referred to as infectious laryngotracheitis virus (ILTV). Vaccination with live attenuated vaccines is practiced regularly for the control of ILT. However, extensive and improper use of live attenuated vaccines is related to vaccine viruses reverting to virulence. An increase in mortality and pathogenicity has been attributed to these vaccine revertant viruses. Recent studies characterized Canadian ILTV strains originating from ILT outbreaks as related to live attenuated vaccine virus revertants. However, information is scarce on the pathogenicity and transmission potential of these Canadian isolates. Hence, in this study, the pathogenicity and transmission potential of two wildtype ILTVs and a chicken embryo origin (CEO) vaccine revertant ILTV of Canadian origin were evaluated. To this end, 3-week-old specific pathogen-free chickens were experimentally infected with each of the ILTV isolates and compared to uninfected controls. Additionally, naïve chickens were exposed to the experimentally infected chickens to mimic naturally occurring infection. Pathogenicity of each of these ILTV isolates was evaluated by the severity of clinical signs, weight loss, mortality, and lesions observed at the necropsy. The transmission potential was evaluated by quantification of ILTV genome loads in oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs and tissue samples of the experimentally infected and contact-exposed chickens, as well as in the capacity to produce ILT in contact-exposed chickens. We observed that the CEO vaccine revertant ILTV isolate induced severe disease in comparison to the two wildtype ILTV isolates used in this study. According to ILTV genome load data, CEO vaccine revertant ILTV isolate was successfully transmitted to naïve contact-exposed chickens in comparison to the tested wildtype ILTV isolates. Overall, the Canadian origin CEO vaccine revertant ILTV isolate possesses higher virulence, and dissemination potential, when compared to the wildtype ILTV isolates used in this study. These findings have serious implications in ILT control in chickens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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13 pages, 1643 KiB  
Article
Recovery of Recombinant Avian Paramyxovirus Type-3 Strain Wisconsin by Reverse Genetics and Its Evaluation as a Vaccine Vector for Chickens
by Mohamed A. Elbehairy, Sunil K. Khattar and Siba K. Samal
Viruses 2021, 13(2), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020316 - 19 Feb 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2932
Abstract
A reverse genetic system for avian paramyxovirus type-3 (APMV-3) strain Wisconsin was created and the infectious virus was recovered from a plasmid-based viral antigenomic cDNA. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene was cloned into the recombinant APMV-3 genome as a foreign gene. Stable expression [...] Read more.
A reverse genetic system for avian paramyxovirus type-3 (APMV-3) strain Wisconsin was created and the infectious virus was recovered from a plasmid-based viral antigenomic cDNA. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene was cloned into the recombinant APMV-3 genome as a foreign gene. Stable expression of GFP by the recovered virus was confirmed for at least 10 consecutive passages. APMV-3 strain Wisconsin was evaluated against APMV-3 strain Netherlands and APMV-1 strain LaSota as a vaccine vector. The three viral vectors expressing GFP as a foreign protein were compared for level of GFP expression level, growth rate in chicken embryo fibroblast (DF-1) cells, and tissue distribution and immunogenicity in specific pathogen-free (SPF) day-old chickens. APMV-3 strain Netherlands showed highest growth rate and GFP expression level among the three APMV vectors in vitro. APMV-3 strain Wisconsin and APMV-1 strain LaSota vectors were mainly confined to the trachea after vaccination of day-old SPF chickens without any observable pathogenicity, whereas APMV-3 strain Netherlands showed wide tissue distribution in different body organs (brain, lungs, trachea, and spleen) with mild observable pathogenicity. In terms of immunogenicity, both APMV-3 strain-vaccinated groups showed HI titers two to three fold higher than that induced by APMV-1 strain LaSota vaccinated group. This study offers a novel paramyxovirus vector (APMV-3 strain Wisconsin) which can be used safely for vaccination of young chickens as an alternative for APMV-1 strain LaSota vector. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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12 pages, 2075 KiB  
Article
Comparative Protective Efficacies of Novel Avian Paramyxovirus-Vectored Vaccines against Virulent Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Chickens
by Edris Shirvani and Siba K. Samal
Viruses 2020, 12(7), 697; https://doi.org/10.3390/v12070697 - 28 Jun 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3012
Abstract
Viral vectored vaccines are desirable alternatives for conventional infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) vaccines. We have recently shown that a recombinant Newcastle disease virus (rNDV) strain LaSota expressing the spike (S) protein of IBV strain Mass-41 (rLaSota/IBV-S) was a promising vaccine candidate for IBV. [...] Read more.
Viral vectored vaccines are desirable alternatives for conventional infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) vaccines. We have recently shown that a recombinant Newcastle disease virus (rNDV) strain LaSota expressing the spike (S) protein of IBV strain Mass-41 (rLaSota/IBV-S) was a promising vaccine candidate for IBV. Here we evaluated a novel chimeric rNDV/avian paramyxovirus serotype 2 (rNDV/APMV-2) as a vaccine vector against IBV. The rNDV/APMV-2 vector was chosen because it is much safer than the rNDV strain LaSota vector, particularly for young chicks and chicken embryos. In order to determine the effectiveness of this vector, a recombinant rNDV/APMV-2 expressing the S protein of IBV strain Mass-41 (rNDV/APMV-2/IBV-S) was constructed. The protective efficacy of this vector vaccine was compared to that of the rNDV vector vaccine. In one study, groups of one-day-old specific-pathogenic-free (SPF) chickens were immunized with rLaSota/IBV-S and rNDV/APMV-2/IBV-S and challenged four weeks later with the homologous highly virulent IBV strain Mass-41. In another study, groups of broiler chickens were single (at day one or three weeks of age) or prime-boost (prime at day one and boost at three weeks of age) immunized with rLaSota/IBV-S and/or rNDV-APMV-2/IBV-S. At weeks six of age, chickens were challenged with a highly virulent IBV strain Mass-41. Our challenge study showed that novel rNDV/APMV-2/IBV-S provided similar protection as rLaSota/IBV-S in SPF chickens. However, compared to prime-boost immunization of chickens with chimeric rNDV/APMV-2, rLaSota/IBV-S and/or a live IBV vaccine, single immunization of chickens with rLaSota/IBV-S, or live IBV vaccine provided better protection against IBV. In conclusion, we have developed the novel rNDV/APMV-2 vector expressing S protein of IBV that can be a safer vaccine against IB in chickens. Our results also suggest a single immunization with a LaSota vectored IBV vaccine candidate provides better protection than prime-boost immunization regimens. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, Volume II)
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