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16 pages, 6654 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Managing Water Quality in Intermittent Supply Systems: The Case of Mukono Town, Uganda

by Takuya Sakomoto, Mahmood Lutaaya and Edo Abraham

Water 2020, 12(3), 806; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030806 - 13 Mar 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 6033

Abstract

Intermittent water supply networks risk microbial and chemical contamination through multiple mechanisms. In particular, in the cities of developing countries, where intrusion through leaky pipes are more prevalent and the sanitation systems coverage is low, contaminated water can be a public health hazard. [...] Read more.

Intermittent water supply networks risk microbial and chemical contamination through multiple mechanisms. In particular, in the cities of developing countries, where intrusion through leaky pipes are more prevalent and the sanitation systems coverage is low, contaminated water can be a public health hazard. Although countries using intermittent water supply systems aim to change to continuous water supply systems—for example, Kampala city is targeting to change to continuous water supply by 2025 through an expansion and rehabilitation of the pipe infrastructure—it is unlikely that this transition will happen soon because of rapid urbanisation and economic feasibility challenges. Therefore, water utilities need to find ways to supply safe drinking water using existing systems until gradually changing to a continuous supply system. This study describes solutions for improving water quality in Mukono town in Uganda through a combination of water quality monitoring (e.g., identifying potential intrusion hotspots into the pipeline using field measurements) and interventions (e.g., booster chlorination). In addition to measuring and analyses of multiple chemical and microbial water quality parameters, we used EPANET 2.0 to simulate the water quality dynamics in the transport pipeline to assess the impact of interventions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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16 pages, 1681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regional and Seasonal Distributions of N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Concentrations in Chlorinated Drinking Water Distribution Systems in Korea

by Sunyoung Park, Sungjin Jung and Hekap Kim

Water 2019, 11(12), 2645; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11122645 - 14 Dec 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4255

Abstract

Volatile N-Nitrosamines (NAs), including N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), an emerging contaminant in drinking water, have been reported to induce cancer in animal studies. This study aims to investigate the regional and seasonal distributions of the concentrations of NDMA, one of the most commonly [...] Read more.

Volatile N-Nitrosamines (NAs), including N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), an emerging contaminant in drinking water, have been reported to induce cancer in animal studies. This study aims to investigate the regional and seasonal distributions of the concentrations of NDMA, one of the most commonly found NAs with high carcinogenicity, in municipal tap water in Korea. NDMA in water samples was quantitatively determined using high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) as a 5-dimethylamino-1-naphthalenesulfonyl (dansyl) derivative after optimization to dry the SPE adsorbent and remove dimethylamine prior to derivatization. Tap water samples were collected from 41 sites in Korea, each of which was visited once in summer and once in winter. The average (±standard deviation) NDMA concentration among all the sites was 46.6 (±22.7) ng/L, ranging from <0.13 to 80.7 ng/L. Significant NDMA differences in the regions, excluding the Jeju region, were not found, whereas the average NDMA concentration was statistically higher in winter than in summer. A multiple regression analysis for the entire data set indicated a negative relationship between NDMA concentration and water temperature. High levels of NDMA in Korea may pose excessive cancer risks from the consumption of such drinking water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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14 pages, 1743 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Dynamics of Bacterial Communities in a Full-Scale Drinking Water Distribution System Using Flow Cytometry

by Caroline Schleich, Sandy Chan, Kristjan Pullerits, Michael D. Besmer, Catherine J. Paul, Peter Rådström and Alexander Keucken

Water 2019, 11(10), 2137; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11102137 - 15 Oct 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4879

Abstract

Microbial monitoring of drinking water is required to guarantee high quality water and to mitigate health hazards. Flow cytometry (FCM) is a fast and robust method that determines bacterial concentrations in liquids. In this study, FCM was applied to monitor the dynamics of [...] Read more.

Microbial monitoring of drinking water is required to guarantee high quality water and to mitigate health hazards. Flow cytometry (FCM) is a fast and robust method that determines bacterial concentrations in liquids. In this study, FCM was applied to monitor the dynamics of the bacterial communities over one year in a full-scale drinking water distribution system (DWDS), following implementation of ultrafiltration (UF) combined with coagulation at the drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). Correlations between the environmental conditions in the DWDS and microbial regrowth were observed, including increases in total cell counts with increasing retention time (correlation coefficient R = 0.89) and increasing water temperature (up to 5.24-fold increase in cell counts during summer). Temporal and spatial biofilm dynamics affecting the water within the DWDS were also observed, such as changes in the percentage of high nucleic acid bacteria with increasing retention time (correlation coefficient R = −0.79). FCM baselines were defined for specific areas in the DWDS to support future management strategies in this DWDS, including a gradual reduction of chloramine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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16 pages, 4976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of the Quality of Tap Water and the Properties of Installation Materials on the Formation of Biofilms

by Dorota Papciak, Barbara Tchórzewska-Cieślak, Andżelika Domoń, Anna Wojtuś, Jakub Żywiec and Janusz Konkol

Water 2019, 11(9), 1903; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11091903 - 12 Sep 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4327

Abstract

The article presents changes in the quality of tap water depending on time spent in installation and its impact on the creation of biofilms on various materials (polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chrome-nickel steel and galvanized steel). For the first time, quantitative analyses [...] Read more.

The article presents changes in the quality of tap water depending on time spent in installation and its impact on the creation of biofilms on various materials (polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chrome-nickel steel and galvanized steel). For the first time, quantitative analyses of biofilm were performed using methods such as: Adenosine 5’-triphosphate (ATP) measurement, flow cytometry, heterotrophic plate count and using fractographical parameters. In the water, after leaving the experimental installation, the increase of turbidity, content of organic compounds, nitrites and nitrates was found, as well as the decrease in the content of chlorine compounds, dissolved oxygen and phosphorus compounds. There was an increase in the number of mesophilic and psychrophilic bacteria. In addition, the presence of Escherichia coli was also found. The analysis of the quantitative determination of microorganisms in a biofilm indicates that galvanized steel is the most susceptible material for the adhesion of microorganisms. These results were also confirmed by the analysis of the biofilm morphology. The roughness profile, the thickness of the biofilm layer can be estimated at about 300 μm on galvanized steel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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17 pages, 5891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Nodal Infection Risks to Guide Interventions Following Accidental Intrusion due to Sustained Low Pressure Events in a Drinking Water Distribution System

by Fatemeh Hatam, Mirjam Blokker, Marie-Claude Besner, Gabrielle Ebacher and Michèle Prévost

Water 2019, 11(7), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11071372 - 3 Jul 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3176

Abstract

Improving the risk models to include the possible infection risk linked to pathogen intrusion into distribution systems during pressure-deficient conditions (PDCs) is essential. The objective of the present study was to assess the public health impact of accidental intrusion through leakage points in [...] Read more.

Improving the risk models to include the possible infection risk linked to pathogen intrusion into distribution systems during pressure-deficient conditions (PDCs) is essential. The objective of the present study was to assess the public health impact of accidental intrusion through leakage points in a full-scale water distribution system by coupling a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) model with water quality calculations based on pressure-driven hydraulic analysis. The impacts on the infection risk of different concentrations of Cryptosporidium in raw sewage (minimum, geometric mean, mean, and maximum) and various durations of intrusion/PDCs (24 h, 10 h, and 1 h) were investigated. For each scenario, 200 runs of Monte Carlo simulations were carried out to assess the uncertainty associated with the consumers’ behavioral variability. By increasing the concentrations of Cryptosporidium in raw sewage from 1 to 560 oocysts/L for a 24-h intrusion, or by increasing the duration of intrusion from 1 to 24 h, with a constant concentration (560 oocysts/L), the simulated number of infected people was increased by 235-fold and 17-fold, respectively. On the first day of the 1-h PDCs/intrusion scenario, a 65% decrease in the number of infected people was observed when supposing no drinking water withdrawals during low-pressure conditions at nodes with low demand available (<5%) compared to no demand. Besides assessing the event risk for an intrusion scenario, defined as four days of observation, the daily number of infected people and nodal risk were also modeled on different days, including during and after intrusion days. The results indicate that, for the case of a 1-h intrusion, delaying the start of the necessary preventive/corrective actions for 5 h after the beginning of the intrusion may result in the infection of up to 71 people. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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18 pages, 3476 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Efficacy of Flushing and Chlorination in Removing Microorganisms from a Pilot Drinking Water Distribution System

by Nikki van Bel, Luc M. Hornstra, Anita van der Veen and Gertjan Medema

Water 2019, 11(5), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11050903 - 29 Apr 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7141

Abstract

To ensure delivery of microbiologically safe drinking water, the physical integrity of the distribution system is an important control measure. During repair works or an incident the drinking water pipe is open and microbiologically contaminated water or soil may enter. Before taking the [...] Read more.

To ensure delivery of microbiologically safe drinking water, the physical integrity of the distribution system is an important control measure. During repair works or an incident the drinking water pipe is open and microbiologically contaminated water or soil may enter. Before taking the pipe back into service it must be cleaned. The efficacy of flushing and shock chlorination was tested using a model pipe-loop system with a natural or cultured biofilm to which a microbial contamination (Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens spores and phiX174) was added. On average, flushing removed 1.5–2.7 log microorganisms from the water, but not the biofilm. In addition, sand added to the system was not completely removed. Flushing velocity (0.3 or 1.5 m/s) did not affect the efficacy. Shock chlorination (10 mg/L, 1–24 h) was very effective against E. coli and phiX174, but C. perfringens spores were partly resistant. Chlorination was slightly more effective in pipes with a natural compared to a cultured biofilm. Flushing alone is thus not sufficient after high risk repair works or incidents, and shock chlorination should be considered to remove microorganisms to ensure microbiologically safe drinking water. Prevention via hygienic working procedures, localizing and isolating the contamination source and issuing boil water advisories remain important, especially during confirmed contamination events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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15 pages, 6380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Migration and Transformation of Ofloxacin by Free Chlorine in Water Distribution System

by Weiwei Bi, Yi Jin and Hongyu Wang

Water 2019, 11(4), 817; https://doi.org/10.3390/w11040817 - 19 Apr 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2993

Abstract

This study investigated the degradation kinetics and product generation of ofloxacin (OFL) in the pipe network under different pipe materials, flow rate, pH, free chlorine concentration and temperature. The experiments done in the beaker and pipe network were compared. The results showed that [...] Read more.

This study investigated the degradation kinetics and product generation of ofloxacin (OFL) in the pipe network under different pipe materials, flow rate, pH, free chlorine concentration and temperature. The experiments done in the beaker and pipe network were compared. The results showed that the reaction rate of OFL chlorination with free chlorine increased with the increase of the free chlorine concentration in the pipe network and deionized water, and the degradation efficiency of OFL in the pipe network was higher than that in the deionized water, satisfying the second-order dynamics model. The degradation rate under different pHs was: neutral > acidic > alkaline. The influence of the flow rate is not significant while the influence of the pipe materials and temperature is obvious. The degradation rate of OFL increased with the increase of the temperature, indicating that the OFL degradation was an endothermic process. A liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometer (LC-MS) was used to detect the chlorination intermediates, and the results showed that the piperazine ring was the main group involved in the chlorination reaction, and the main point involved in the chlorination reaction was the N4 atom on the piperazine ring. We also found that, as the reaction time increases, the concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) increase and THMs mainly exist in the form of trichloromethane (TCM) while HAAs mainly exist in the form of monochloroacetic acid (MCAA). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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Review

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19 pages, 1853 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Drinking Water Temperature around the Globe: Understanding, Policies, Challenges and Opportunities

by Claudia Agudelo-Vera, Stefania Avvedimento, Joby Boxall, Enrico Creaco, Henk de Kater, Armando Di Nardo, Aleksandar Djukic, Isabel Douterelo, Katherine E. Fish, Pedro L. Iglesias Rey, Nenad Jacimovic, Heinz E. Jacobs, Zoran Kapelan, Javier Martinez Solano, Carolina Montoya Pachongo, Olivier Piller, Claudia Quintiliani, Jan Ručka, Ladislav Tuhovčák and Mirjam Blokker

Water 2020, 12(4), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041049 - 7 Apr 2020

Cited by 77 | Viewed by 15396

Abstract

Water temperature is often monitored at water sources and treatment works; however, there is limited monitoring of the water temperature in the drinking water distribution system (DWDS), despite a known impact on physical, chemical and microbial reactions which impact water quality. A key [...] Read more.

Water temperature is often monitored at water sources and treatment works; however, there is limited monitoring of the water temperature in the drinking water distribution system (DWDS), despite a known impact on physical, chemical and microbial reactions which impact water quality. A key parameter influencing drinking water temperature is soil temperature, which is influenced by the urban heat island effects. This paper provides critique and comprehensive summary of the current knowledge, policies and challenges regarding drinking water temperature research and presents the findings from a survey of international stakeholders. Knowledge gaps as well as challenges and opportunities for monitoring and research are identified. The conclusion of the study is that temperature in the DWDS is an emerging concern in various countries regardless of the water source and treatment, climate conditions, or network characteristics such as topology, pipe material or diameter. More research is needed, especially to determine (i) the effect of higher temperatures, (ii) a legislative limit on temperature and (iii) measures to comply with this limit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Quality in Drinking Water Distribution Systems)

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