Water

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22 pages, 5471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Flux Paths in Lakes and Reservoirs

by Sofya Guseva, Peter Casper, Torsten Sachs, Uwe Spank and Andreas Lorke

Water 2021, 13(22), 3270; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13223270 - 18 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3587

Mechanical energy in lakes is present in various types of water motion, including turbulent flows, surface and internal waves. The major source of kinetic energy is wind forcing at the water surface. Although a small portion of the vertical wind energy flux in [...] Read more.

Mechanical energy in lakes is present in various types of water motion, including turbulent flows, surface and internal waves. The major source of kinetic energy is wind forcing at the water surface. Although a small portion of the vertical wind energy flux in the atmosphere is transferred to water, it is crucial for physical, biogeochemical and ecological processes in lentic ecosystems. To examine energy fluxes and energy content in surface and internal waves, we analyze extensive datasets of air- and water-side measurements collected at two small water bodies (<10 km²). For the first time we use directly measured atmospheric momentum fluxes. The estimated energy fluxes and content agree well with results reported for larger lakes, suggesting that the energetics governing water motions in enclosed basins is similar, independent of basin size. The largest fraction of wind energy flux is transferred to surface waves and increases strongly nonlinearly for wind speeds exceeding 3 m s⁻¹. The energy content is largest in basin-scale and high-frequency internal waves but shows seasonal variability and varies among aquatic systems. At one of the study sites, energy dissipation rates varied diurnally, suggesting biogenic turbulence, which appears to be a widespread phenomenon in lakes and reservoirs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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21 pages, 4483 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Multi-Scale Layering-Structure of Thermal Microscale Profiles

by Andrew Folkard

Water 2021, 13(21), 3042; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13213042 - 1 Nov 2021

Viewed by 1868

Abstract

Thermal microstructure profiling is an established technique for investigating turbulent mixing and stratification in lakes and oceans. However, it provides only quasi-instantaneous, 1-D snapshots. Other approaches to measuring these phenomena exist, but each has logistic and/or quality weaknesses. Hence, turbulent mixing and stratification [...] Read more.

Thermal microstructure profiling is an established technique for investigating turbulent mixing and stratification in lakes and oceans. However, it provides only quasi-instantaneous, 1-D snapshots. Other approaches to measuring these phenomena exist, but each has logistic and/or quality weaknesses. Hence, turbulent mixing and stratification processes remain greatly under-sampled. This paper contributes to addressing this problem by presenting a novel analysis of thermal microstructure profiles, focusing on their multi-scale stratification structure. Profiles taken in two small lakes using a Self-Contained Automated Micro-Profiler (SCAMP) were analysed. For each profile, buoyancy frequency (N), Thorpe scales (L_T), and the coefficient of vertical turbulent diffusivity (K_Z) were determined. To characterize the multi-scale stratification, profiles of d²T/dz² at a spectrum of scales were calculated and the number of turning points in them counted. Plotting these counts against the scale gave pseudo-spectra, which were characterized by the index D of their power law regression lines. Scale-dependent correlations of D with N, L_T and K_Z were found, and suggest that this approach may be useful for providing alternative estimates of the efficiency of turbulent mixing and measures of longer-term averages of K_Z than current methods provide. Testing these potential uses will require comparison of field measurements of D with time-integrated K_Z values and numerical simulations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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27 pages, 55391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stratification in a Reservoir Mixed by Bubble Plumes under Future Climate Scenarios

by David Birt, Danielle Wain, Emily Slavin, Jun Zang, Robert Luckwell and Lee D. Bryant

Water 2021, 13(18), 2467; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13182467 - 8 Sep 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3754

Abstract

During summer, reservoir stratification can negatively impact source water quality. Mixing via bubble plumes (i.e., destratification) aims to minimise this. Within Blagdon Lake, a UK drinking water reservoir, a bubble plume system was found to be insufficient for maintaining homogeneity during a 2017 [...] Read more.

During summer, reservoir stratification can negatively impact source water quality. Mixing via bubble plumes (i.e., destratification) aims to minimise this. Within Blagdon Lake, a UK drinking water reservoir, a bubble plume system was found to be insufficient for maintaining homogeneity during a 2017 heatwave based on two in situ temperature chains. Air temperature will increase under future climate change which will affect stratification; this raises questions over the future applicability of these plumes. To evaluate bubble-plume performance now and in the future, AEM3D was used to simulate reservoir mixing. Calibration and validation were done on in situ measurements. The model performed well with a root mean squared error of 0.53 °C. Twelve future meteorological scenarios from the UK Climate Projection 2018 were taken and down-scaled to sub-daily values to simulate lake response to future summer periods. The down-scaling methods, based on diurnal patterns, showed mixed results. Future model runs covered five-year intervals from 2030 to 2080. Mixing events, mean water temperatures, and Schmidt stability were evaluated. Eight scenarios showed a significant increase in water temperature, with two of these scenarios showing significant decrease in mixing events. None showed a significant increase in energy requirements. Results suggest that future climate scenarios may not alter the stratification regime; however, the warmer water may favour growth conditions for certain species of cyanobacteria and accelerate sedimentary oxygen consumption. There is some evidence of the lake changing from polymictic to a more monomictic nature. The results demonstrate bubble plumes are unlikely to maintain water column homogeneity under future climates. Modelling artificial mixing systems under future climates is a powerful tool to inform system design and reservoir management including requirements to prevent future source water quality degradation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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20 pages, 4345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dissolved Oxygen in a Shallow Ice-Covered Lake in Winter: Effect of Changes in Light, Thermal and Ice Regimes

by Galina Zdorovennova, Nikolay Palshin, Sergey Golosov, Tatiana Efremova, Boris Belashev, Sergey Bogdanov, Irina Fedorova, Ilia Zverev, Roman Zdorovennov and Arkady Terzhevik

Water 2021, 13(17), 2435; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172435 - 4 Sep 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5539

Abstract

Oxygen conditions in ice-covered lakes depend on many factors, which, in turn, are influenced by a changing climate, so detection of the oxygen trend becomes difficult. Our research was based on data of long-term measurements of dissolved oxygen (2007–2020), water temperature, under-ice solar [...] Read more.

Oxygen conditions in ice-covered lakes depend on many factors, which, in turn, are influenced by a changing climate, so detection of the oxygen trend becomes difficult. Our research was based on data of long-term measurements of dissolved oxygen (2007–2020), water temperature, under-ice solar radiation, and snow-ice thickness (1995–2020) in Lake Vendyurskoe (Northwestern Russia). Changes of air temperature and precipitation in the study region during 1994–2020 and ice phenology of Lake Vendyurskoe for the same period based on field data and FLake model calculations were analyzed. The interannual variability of ice-on and ice-off dates covered wide time intervals (5 and 3 weeks, respectively), but no significant trends were revealed. In years with early ice-on, oxygen content decreased by more than 50% by the end of winter. In years with late ice-on and intermediate ice-off, the oxygen decrease was less than 40%. A significant negative trend was revealed for snow-ice cover thickness in spring. A climatic decrease of snow-ice cover thickness contributes to the rise of under-ice irradiance and earlier onset of under-ice convection. In years with early and long convection, an increase in oxygen content by 10–15% was observed at the end of the ice-covered period, presumably due to photosynthesis of phytoplankton. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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12 pages, 4211 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deriving Six Components of Reynolds Stress Tensor from Single-ADCP Data

by Sergey Bogdanov, Roman Zdorovennov, Nikolay Palshin and Galina Zdorovennova

Water 2021, 13(17), 2389; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13172389 - 30 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2441

Abstract

Acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) are widely used in geophysical studies for mean velocity profiling and calculation of energy dissipation rate. On the other hand, the estimation of turbulent stresses from ADCP data still remains challenging. With the four-beam version of the device, [...] Read more.

Acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP) are widely used in geophysical studies for mean velocity profiling and calculation of energy dissipation rate. On the other hand, the estimation of turbulent stresses from ADCP data still remains challenging. With the four-beam version of the device, only two shear stresses are derivable; and even for the five-beam version (Janus+), the calculation of the full Reynolds stress tensor is problematic currently. The known attempts to overcome the problem are based on the “coupled ADCP” experimental setup and include some hard restrictions, not to mention the essential complexity of performing experiments. In this paper, a new method is presented which allows to derive the stresses from single-ADCP data. Its essence is that interbeam correlations are taken into account as producing the missing equations for stresses. This method is applicable only for the depth range, for which the distance between the beams is comparable to the scales, where the turbulence is locally isotropic and homogeneous. The validation of this method was carried out for convectively-mixed layer in a boreal ice-covered lake. The results of computations turned out to be physically sustainable in the sense that realizability conditions were basically fulfilled. The additional verification was carried out by comparing the results, obtained by the new method and “coupled ADCPs” one. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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34 pages, 8012 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating Nutrients and Phytoplankton Dynamics in Lakes: Model Development and Applications

by Bushra Tasnim, Xing Fang, Joel S. Hayworth and Di Tian

Water 2021, 13(15), 2088; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13152088 - 30 Jul 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4866

Abstract

Due to eutrophication, many lakes require periodic management and restoration, which becomes unpredictable due to internal nutrient loading. To provide better lake management and restoration strategies, a deterministic, one-dimensional water quality model MINLAKE2020 was modified from daily MINLAKE2012 by incorporating chlorophyll-a, nutrients, and [...] Read more.

Due to eutrophication, many lakes require periodic management and restoration, which becomes unpredictable due to internal nutrient loading. To provide better lake management and restoration strategies, a deterministic, one-dimensional water quality model MINLAKE2020 was modified from daily MINLAKE2012 by incorporating chlorophyll-a, nutrients, and biochemical oxygen demand models into the regional year-around temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO) model. MINLAKE2020 was applied to six lakes (varying depth and trophic status) in Minnesota focusing on studying the internal nutrient dynamics. The average root-mean-square errors (RMSEs) of simulated water temperature and DO in six lakes are 1.51 °C and 2.33 mg/L, respectively, when compared with profile data over 2–4 years. The average RMSE of DO simulation decreased by 24.2% when compared to the MINLAKE2012 model. The internal nutrient dynamics was studied by analyzing time series of phosphorus, chlorophyll-a, and DO over several years and by performing a sensitivity analysis of model parameters. A long-term simulation (20 years) of Lake Elmo shows that the simulated phosphorus release from sediment under the anoxic condition results in surface phosphorus increase, which matches with the observed trends. An average internal phosphorus loading increase of 92.3 kg/year increased the average daily phosphorus concentration by 0.0087 mg/L. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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26 pages, 4439 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulating Diurnal Variations of Water Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen in Shallow Minnesota Lakes

by Bushra Tasnim, Jalil A. Jamily, Xing Fang, Yangen Zhou and Joel S. Hayworth

Water 2021, 13(14), 1980; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13141980 - 19 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3809

Abstract

In shallow lakes, water quality is mostly affected by weather conditions and some ecological processes which vary throughout the day. To understand and model diurnal-nocturnal variations, a deterministic, one-dimensional hourly lake water quality model MINLAKE2018 was modified from daily MINLAKE2012, and applied to [...] Read more.

In shallow lakes, water quality is mostly affected by weather conditions and some ecological processes which vary throughout the day. To understand and model diurnal-nocturnal variations, a deterministic, one-dimensional hourly lake water quality model MINLAKE2018 was modified from daily MINLAKE2012, and applied to five shallow lakes in Minnesota to simulate water temperature and dissolved oxygen (DO) over multiple years. A maximum diurnal water temperature variation of 11.40 °C and DO variation of 5.63 mg/L were simulated. The root-mean-square errors (RMSEs) of simulated hourly surface temperatures in five lakes range from 1.19 to 1.95 °C when compared with hourly data over 4–8 years. The RMSEs of temperature and DO simulations from MINLAKE2018 decreased by 17.3% and 18.2%, respectively, and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency increased by 10.3% and 66.7%, respectively; indicating the hourly model performs better in comparison to daily MINLAKE2012. The hourly model uses variable hourly wind speeds to determine the turbulent diffusion coefficient in the epilimnion and produces more hours of temperature and DO stratification including stratification that lasted several hours on some of the days. The hourly model includes direct solar radiation heating to the bottom sediment that decreases magnitude of heat flux from or to the sediment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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20 pages, 3165 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gas Pressure Dynamics in Small and Mid-Size Lakes

by Bertram Boehrer, Sylvia Jordan, Peifang Leng, Carolin Waldemer, Cornelis Schwenk, Michael Hupfer and Martin Schultze

Water 2021, 13(13), 1824; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13131824 - 30 Jun 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3707

Abstract

Dissolved gases produce a gas pressure. This gas pressure is the appropriate physical quantity for judging the possibility of bubble formation and hence it is central for understanding exchange of climate-relevant gases between (limnic) water and the atmosphere. The contribution of ebullition has [...] Read more.

Dissolved gases produce a gas pressure. This gas pressure is the appropriate physical quantity for judging the possibility of bubble formation and hence it is central for understanding exchange of climate-relevant gases between (limnic) water and the atmosphere. The contribution of ebullition has widely been neglected in numerical simulations. We present measurements from six lacustrine waterbodies in Central Germany: including a natural lake, a drinking water reservoir, a mine pit lake, a sand excavation lake, a flooded quarry, and a small flooded lignite opencast, which has been heavily polluted. Seasonal changes of oxygen and temperature are complemented by numerical simulations of nitrogen and calculations of vapor pressure to quantify the contributions and their dynamics in lacustrine waters. In addition, accumulation of gases in monimolimnetic waters is demonstrated. We sum the partial pressures of the gases to yield a quantitative value for total gas pressure to reason which processes can force ebullition at which locations. In conclusion, only a small number of gases contribute decisively to gas pressure and hence can be crucial for bubble formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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16 pages, 2576 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relative Performance of 1-D Versus 3-D Hydrodynamic, Water-Quality Models for Predicting Water Temperature and Oxygen in a Shallow, Eutrophic, Managed Reservoir

by Xiamei Man, Chengwang Lei, Cayelan C. Carey and John C. Little

Water 2021, 13(1), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13010088 - 3 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3125

Abstract

Many researchers use one-dimensional (1-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) coupled hydrodynamic and water-quality models to simulate water quality dynamics, but direct comparison of their relative performance is rare. Such comparisons may quantify their relative advantages, which can inform best practices. In this study, we [...] Read more.

Many researchers use one-dimensional (1-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) coupled hydrodynamic and water-quality models to simulate water quality dynamics, but direct comparison of their relative performance is rare. Such comparisons may quantify their relative advantages, which can inform best practices. In this study, we compare two 1-year simulations in a shallow, eutrophic, managed reservoir using a community-developed 1-D model and a 3-D model coupled with the same water-quality model library based on multiple evaluation criteria. In addition, a verified bubble plume model is coupled with the 1-D and 3-D models to simulate the water temperature in four epilimnion mixing periods to further quantify the relative performance of the 1-D and 3-D models. Based on the present investigation, adopting a 1-D water-quality model to calibrate a 3-D model is time-efficient and can produce reasonable results; 3-D models are recommended for simulating thermal stratification and management interventions, whereas 1-D models may be more appropriate for simpler model setups, especially if field data needed for 3-D modeling are lacking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Processes in Lakes)

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