Next Article in Journal
Advances on Bioanalysis: Recent Approaches in the Determination of Biomarkers, Drugs of Abuse and Medicines
Previous Article in Journal
Mild Organosolv Delignification of Residual Aspen Bark after Extractives Isolation as a Step in Biorefinery Processing Schemes
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Molecules
Volume 27
Issue 10
10.3390/molecules27103184
molecules-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Seeds as Potential Sources of Phenolic Compounds and Minerals for the Indian Population

by
Pravin Kumar Sahu
1,
Ana Cervera-Mata
2,
Suryakant Chakradhari
1,
Khageshwar Singh Patel
3,
Erick K. Towett
4,
José J. Quesada-Granados
5,
Pablo Martín-Ramos
6 and
José A. Rufián-Henares
5,7,*
1
School of Studies Environmental Science, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur 492010, India
2
Departamento de Edafología y Química Agrícola, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
3
School of Agronomy, Amity University, Baloda-Bazar Road, Raipur 493225, India
4
World Agroforestry Centre, P.O. Box 30677, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
5
Departamento de Nutrición y Bromatología, Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de Alimentos, Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
6
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, EPS, Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias Ambientales de Aragón (IUCA), University of Zaragoza, Carretera de Cuarte, s/n, 22071 Huesca, Spain
7
Institute de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs. Granada, Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2022, 27(10), 3184; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103184
Submission received: 17 April 2022 / Revised: 12 May 2022 / Accepted: 13 May 2022 / Published: 17 May 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Food Chemistry)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Seeds are major sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds for human beings. In this work, the chemical composition and physicochemical properties of 155 Indian seeds (belonging to 49 families) are reported. Moisture and ash were measured with reference protocols from AOAC; total polyphenols and flavonoids were measured with spectrophotometric methods after extraction with organic solvents, and mineral elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrophotometry. Total phenolic compounds, flavonoids and mineral contents (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, Rb, S, Sr, Ti, V and Zn) were found to vary in the ranges 182–5000, 110–4465 and 687–7904 mg/100 g (DW), respectively. Noticeably, polyphenol contents higher than 2750 mg/100 g were observed in 18 seeds. In addition, mineral contents >5000 mg/100 g were detected in the seeds from Cuminum cyminum, Foeniculum vulgare, Commiphora wightii, Parkia javanica, Putranjiva roxburghii, Santalum album and Strychnos potatorum. Botanical and taxonomical variations in the proximate characteristics of the examined seeds are also discussed.

1. Introduction

In the last decade, a growing interest in seeds as significant ingredients of the daily diet has been observed, since seeds are placed next to legumes as a source of plant proteins [1]. In addition, seeds contribute to meeting the increasing food demand, and in many cases, are also used as traditional medicines [2,3]. Even more, their seed cakes are used for animal feed and as green manures in organic agriculture [4,5].
Seeds are dried products with low water content [1]. Owing to their evolutionary adaptation to the embryonic nutrition of the plants they originate from, seeds are rich in different nutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids [6]. In addition, seeds are also good sources of different bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids (vitamin A), tocopherols (vitamin E), xanthophylls and polyphenols [7,8]. Indeed, phenolic compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes and lignans are strong antioxidant compounds [9,10]. Polyphenols compounds are the subject of increasing scientific interest due to their potential applicability in the treatment of some chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, osteoporosis or neurodegenerative disorders [11]. Moreover, phenolic compounds can be found in the coats (hull, husk or skin, for instance) covering the cotyledon(s) of seeds [12] and can be even separated from the seed matrix by extraction with an appropriate solvent [13].
Although the phenolic contents of some common seeds have been reported in the literature [14,15,16], less attention has been paid to their potential absorption [17], which affects their potential health effects [18]. For the analysis of total phenols in any kind of vegetables matrixes, the Folin–Ciocalteu method is widely accepted. This is a spectrophotometric method that measures oxidized phenolic compounds using the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent at 750 nm [19]. On the contrary, single phenolic species (such as flavonoids or phenolic acids) are also analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry [20] or diode-array detectors [21].
On the other hand, seeds are important dietary sources of minerals since they accumulate these compounds during plant growth to be used for further development needs [22]. The content of nutrients varies depending on plant variety, agricultural practices, soil and climatic conditions, as well as technological and culinary practices [1]. Mineral elements such as Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, S, Se, Zn, etc. have a relevant role in human health [23]. For example, seeds are low in Na and rich in K, and clinical trials and metanalyses suggest that a high intake of potassium is linked with blood pressure reduction [24]. In the case of seeds, the mineral contents of usual seeds are known [25,26], but, for instance, the potential of seeds from herbal plants has received less attention from the scientific community.
When seeds are harvested, their quality characteristics usually decay due to the poor techniques followed by the Indian population (improper sun drying or storage in gunny bags) [27]. In order to limit the effect of the postharvest loss, preservation techniques should be standardized with cheap and easy techniques acceptable by local tribal people as well as manufacturers. Among them, drying is a traditional and effective method used for seeds preservation. In this sense, sun drying combined with hot-air drying are cheap and easily applicable to different seeds [28].
Hence, the aim of this work is to study the phenolic and mineral contents of seeds from 155 species (57 herbs, 14 shrubs, 20 vines and 64 trees) with nutritional interest, belonging to 49 families. The proximate characteristics (visual seed color, seed mass, seed coat mass, moisture and ash contents) are also discussed.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Physicochemical Characteristics

The seeds from the species under study are shown in Figure S1, and their physicochemical characteristics are summarized in Table 1. Their mass ranged from 0.21 to 23,623 mg/seed, with the maximum value having been found for the seeds from Anthocephalus indicus (syn. Breonia chinensis). These values are in line with those reported by Cervera-Mata et al. [29], although in that paper, the highest masses were obtained for Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Arachis hypogaea and Caesalpina crista. The mean mass values of the seeds from herbs (n = 57), shrubs (n = 14), vines (n = 20) and trees (n = 64) were 125, 556, 1264 and 1629 mg/seed, respectively. Among them, the seeds from Anthocephalus indicus, Anacardium occidentale, Areca catechu, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bauhinia vahlii, Butea frondosa, Diospyros melanoxylon, Ficus racemosa, Gardenia thunbergia, Juglans regia, Litchi chinesis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Mangifera indica, Nelumbo nucifera, Pistacia vera, Phoenix dactylifera, Pongamia pinnata, Prunus dulcis, Sapindus emarginatus, Semecarpus anacardium, Sterculia foetida, Syzygium cumini and Trapa natans (mostly trees) featured the largest seed sizes (>1000 mg/seed). Out of the 155 species studied, 81 had measurable seed coats, whose fractions varied from 4.0% to 95%, with the highest value having been found for Phyllanthus emblica. Such values are larger than those previously reported [29], since the coat fractions analyzed in that paper never exceeded 40%. The moisture and ash contents of the studied seeds were in the 1.0–35.5% and 1.0–7.8% ranges, respectively (Table 1). These results are in line with those of other Indian seeds [29]. In fact, moisture and ash content of Sesamum indicum seeds were similar to those reported for sesame seeds from Turkey, Sudan and Nigeria [30].

2.2. Polyphenol Contents

The concentrations of total polyphenols and flavonoids in the seeds from the 155 species (Table 1) varied from 182 to 5000 mg/100 g and from 110 to 4465 mg/100 g, respectively, with a Flavonoid/Total phenolic compounds ratio ranging from 0.05 to 0.95, which is similar to the ratio previously described for other Indian seeds [29]. The highest levels of total phenolic compounds (at least twice the mean value, 2784 mg/100 g) were identified in the seeds from Stevia rebaudiana, Bixa orellana, Momordica charantia, Solena amplexicaulis, Shorea robusta, Diospyros melanoxylon, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Hardwickia binata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Melia azedarach, Syzygium cumini, Argemone mexicana, Papaver somniferum, Passiflora foetida, Bridelia retusa, Nigella sativa, Murraya koenigii and Sesamum radiatum.
For comparison purposes, some of the highest values of total phenols (5460–15,188 mg/100 g) have been reported for clove (Syzygium aromaticum), peppermint (Mentha balsamea) and star anise (Illicium verum), according to Pérez-Jiménez et al. [9]. In turn, total phenolic compounds in the 21.2–417 mg/100 g range have been reported for the germinated peanut, Coriandrum sativum, cereals, pulses and other seeds [14,16]. These are important results, since Syed et al. [31] reported that peanuts have a high content of polyphenols, with a positive effect on non-communicable diseases such as cancer [32] or diabetes [33]. In fact, more than 20 bioactive compounds with phenol structure have been reported for this botanical species [34]. The total polyphenols content was also similar for other species, such as Allium cepa seeds, reported in the range of 200–400 mg/100 g by other authors [35,36]. In this respect, Žilic et al. [37] demonstrated that polyphenols play an important role in sunflower seed oil, by protecting it from oxidation during storage. Again, our total phenols value for Sesamum indicum are in line with those provided in other papers [30,38]. It is known that the total phenolic content can differ among the samples from different countries due to variations in the genotypes, ecological factors and cultivation practices [39].
Regarding total flavonoids content, high concentrations (at least twice the mean value, 1648 mg/100 g) were observed in the seeds from Semecarpus anacardium, Bixa orellana, Celastrus paniculatus, Shorea robusta, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Careya arborea, Azadirachta indica, Melia azedarach, Abelmoschus moschatus, Thespesia populnea, Syzygium cumini, Argemone mexicana, Papaver somniferum, Passiflora foetida, Sesamum indicum, Piper nigrum, Bridelia retusa, Nigella sativa, Murraya koenigii and Schleichera oleosa. These levels are quite similar to those reported for Indian weeds [40]. Gobalakrishnan et al. [41] identified ten bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, in Ludwigia parviflora seeds (Onagraceae family), also from India, which makes them candidates for the treatment of various diseases. On the other hand, the total flavonoids levels of our study are in line with those reported by other papers [41,42,43,44]. In fact, flavonoids species such as hyperoside, rutin, hesperidin, vicenin, diosmin, luteolin, apigenin, orientine, dihydroquercetin, catechin and arbutin have been found in Coriandrum sativum seeds [45], being bioactive compounds with anthihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, hypolipidemic, anti-atherogenic and antiarrhythmic effects.
The plant type (herb, vine, shrub and tree) had a remarkable influence on the total phenolic compound seed content, which followed the order vine (1142) < tree (1410) < herb (1432) < shrub (1507 mg/100 g). The flavonoid content showed a slightly different trend, with vine (475) < tree (798) < shrub (884) < herb (960 mg/100 g).
Total phenols and flavonoids were also grouped by botanical families (Figure 1A,B, respectively). Taxonomically, total phenolic compounds (Figure 1A) followed the sequence: Juglandaceae (182) < Moringaceae (316) < Linaceae (332) < Zingiberaceae (363) < Asparagaceae (395) < Amaryllidaceae (447) < Putranjivaceae (493) < Rosaceae < (598) < Verbenaceae (614) < Moraceae (682) < Basellaceae (705) < Annonaceae (820) < Solanaceae (892) < Malvaceae (974) < Rubiaceae (1011) < Loganiaceae (1068) < Fabaceae (1170) < Apiaceae (1205) < Schisandraceae (1323) < Sapindaceae (1402) < Arecaceae (1420) < Santalaceae (1480) < Rutaceae (1514) < Myrtaceae (1571) < Lauraceae (1836) < Polygonaceae (1908) < Piperacee (1949) ≈ Phyllanthaceae (1949) ≈ Asteraceae (1949) < Lythraceae (1978) < Anacardiaceae(2243) < Nelumbonaceae (2603) < Lecythidaceae (2607) < Lecythidaceae (2607) < Meliaceae(2969) < Phyllanthaceae(3551) < Passifloraceae (3622) < Ranunculaceae (4247) < Papaveraceae (4654 mg/100 g).
Similarly, the flavonoid content in the seeds (Figure 1B) varied from one family to another, with values ranging from 152 to 4178 mg/100 g. The highest contents were detected in four families: Pedaliaceae (3128), Passifloraceae (3170), Ranunculaceae (3750) and Papeveraceae (4178 mg/100 g).

2.3. Mineral Contents

Several vegetable species bear seeds during dry season in tropical countries such as India. This time of seed production is very important during periods of food scarcity [46] or for fast-growing populations such as the Indian one [27]. As seeds are excellent sources of micronutrients, their consumption may contribute to meeting the nutritional requirement and to overcoming the micronutrient deficiency at minimum cost [47,48]. Since the largest concentration of people with mineral elements deficiencies lives in low-income South Asian countries, including India [49], and due to the predominantly vegetarian diet of Indian inhabitants [50], a possible solution for this problem could be the increase in seed consumption [51].
The contents of 20 mineral elements (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, P, Rb, S, Sr, Ti, V and Zn) in the seeds grown in India from the 155 species under study are shown in Table S1. The mineral content varied from 687 to 7904 mg/100 g (Figure 2). Although these values are generally in line with those previously reported [25,29,52], there are seeds with the largest mineral content exceeding by up to 3000 mg the limit of 4913 mg/100 g found in that paper; this could be related with the lower number of seeds analyzed in that study (60 species vs. 155 species in the current paper) and also related with the botanical nature of seeds. In ref. [29] the studied seeds were mainly beans, weeds and pulses, while in the current paper, a broad variety is found. In this sense, the seed mineral potentiality was categorized in two groups using cluster analysis (data not shown); cluster-I included seeds from 148 plants with mineral contents in the 687–5089 mg/100 g interval, while cluster-II consisted of seven species (Cuminum cyminum, Foeniculum vulgare, Commiphora wightii, Parkia javanica, Putranjiva roxburghii, Santalum album and Strychnos potatorum), which had mineral contents in the 5728–7904 mg/100 g range.
The mineral accumulation in the seeds followed the following increasing trend: As (0.001) < V (0.01) < Mo (0.04) < Pb (0.05) < Co (0.06) < Cr (0.12) < Ba (0.22) < Ti (0.62 < Cu (1.3) < Rb (1.5) ≈ Sr (1.5) < Zn (4.2) < Al (4.7) < Mn (4.9) < Cl (42) < Fe (43) < Mg (185) < Na (187) < S (354) < Ca (375) < P (408) < K (972 mg/100 g). Nonetheless, it should be taken into consideration that mineral levels are largely influenced by factors such as the soil quality, topology, taxonomy, weather, etc. [39].
In relation to macronutrients, P and S were found to accumulate in all seeds, at concentrations ranging from 53 to 958 mg/100 g and from 50 to 5144 mg/100 g, respectively. These levels are similar to those of other seeds collected in India [29,40]. The highest P and S contents were found in Corchorus olitorius and Parkia javanica seeds, respectively. In another study [29] Crotalaria albida, Rorippa palustris and Cleome viscosa showed the highest S contents. High P contents (602–661 mg/100 g) and S contents (638–2067 mg/100 g) occurred in seeds belonging to the Moringaceae and Malvaceae families and to the Brassicaceae, Caricaceae, Fabaceae, Moringaceae and Putranjivaceae families, respectively (Figure 2). Phosphorous is an important mineral required for the normal growth and maturity of plants, while S is another essential element for the synthesis of chlorophyll and proteins [53].
Chlorine is required in small amounts for plant metabolism and photosynthesis [53]. However, Cl accumulated in the seeds from 26 species (Table S1) at concentrations ranging from 14 to 1079 mg/100 g. The highest contents were found in Apiaceae seeds, followed by Lythraceae and Piperacee seeds (373–376 mg/100 g). The maximum value was observed in Trapa natans seeds, followed by Cuminum cyminum. In general, these values are in line with those of Heliotropium indicum (300 mg/100 g) [27].
Sodium was detected in the seeds from 17 species (78–6419 mg/100 g), with the highest contents in the seeds from Santalum album and Strychnos potatorum. In a previous publication [29], high Na accumulation was detected in the seeds from Eleusine corocana, Oryza sativa, Setaria italica and Zea mays. In general, some plants tend to accumulate Na when they grow in saline soils, secreting salts to regulate the ion balance, contributing to salinity tolerance [54]. In the case of potassium, it was identified in seeds from all species, at concentrations between 21 and 2625 mg/100 g, which are in line with the values found in weeds, pulses and beans from India [29]. The highest K accumulation (>2.5× mean value, 1944 mg/100 g) was identified in Coriandrum sativum, Cuminum cyminum, Foeniculum vulgare, Butea frondosa, Delonix regia, Leucaena leucocephala, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Ficus racemosa and Withania coagulans. Remarkable K contents (1729–2349 mg/100 g) were detected in the seeds from the Apiaceae, Caricaceae, Moraceae, Piperacee and Zingiberaceae families.
Magnesium is the main component of chlorophyll [53] and was identified in the seeds from 147 species, at concentrations between 34 and 910 mg/100 g, in line with other seeds [29,40]. High Mg contents (>395 mg/100 g) were detected in the seeds from Abelmoschus esculentus, Acacia nilotica, Cassia fistula, Commiphora wightii, Corchorus olitorius, Parkia javanica, Pterocarpus marsupium and Urena lobata, which are similar to those reported for barley [55] and millet seeds [56]. The highest Mg accumulation was noticed in seeds belonging to the Amaryllidaceae, Burseraceae, Caricaceae and Moringaceae families.
Calcium is also an important mineral for human nutrition that was accumulated at concentrations in the 3.0–1786 mg/100 g range in the seeds from 155 species (Table S1). These are values quite similar to those for weeds such as Panicum sumatrense, Setaria italica, Cassia tora, Heliotropium indicum, Rorippa palustris and Ludwigia parviflora [14N]. Abundant Ca accumulation (919–1253 mg/100 g) was observed in the seeds from four families: Apiaceae, Caricaceae, Pedaliaceae and Putranjivaceae (Figure 2).
Strontium content in 125 cultivars varied from 0.1 to 27.4 mg/100 g. These are higher levels than those described for weeds, pulses and beans from India [29,40]. High Sr content (from 21 to 27 mg/100 g) was accumulated in two Apiaceae family species: Daucus carota spp. Sativus and Foeniculum vulgare. Rubidium concentration in the seeds under study ranged from 0.2 to 13.4 mg/100 g; such high Rb accumulation was registered in Lepidium sativum seeds. These levels are similar to those found in other seeds [40] and within the normal range in foods [57].
Barium accumulated in the seeds from 18 species at milligram levels (1.0–7.9 mg/100 g). The maximum Ba content was detected in Daucus carota spp. Sativus. Relatively high contents (2.3–2.4 mg/100 g) were observed in Apiaceae and Rubiaceae seeds (Figure 2). Aluminum accumulated in the seeds from eight species over a wide concentration range: from 41 to 269 m/100 g. Aluminum at high levels (240–269 mg/100 g) was found in the seeds from Trachyspermum ammi and Trapa natans.
Four micronutrients (Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn) accumulated in all cultivars at concentrations in the 0.5–47, 0.1–1100, 0.3–12.6 and 0.4–21 mg/100 g ranges, respectively. These are values similar to those of other seeds from India [40], Senegal [58] and Uganda [59]. High Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn contents (at least twice the 9.8, 46, 2.8 and 8.4 mg/100 g average contents, respectively) were accumulated in Acacia auriculiformis, Allium cepa, Amomum subulatum, Citrus limon, Delonix regia, Illicium verum, Lantana camara, Malachra capitata, Mimosa pudica, Sida acuta, Trachyspermum ammi and Urena bobata; Areca catechu, Annona squamosa, Carthamus oxyacanthus, Citrus limon, Commiphora wightii, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Phoenix dactylifera, Phoenix sylvestris, Solanum melongena and Trachyspermum ammi; Careya arborea, Lagenaria siceraria, Malachra capitata, Mimosa pudica, Pterocarpus marsupium, Sesbania sesban, Sida acuta and Syzygium cumini; Acacia nilotica, Abelmoschus esculentus, Anacardium occidentale, Basella rubra, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, Commiphora wightii, Cucumis melo var. cantalupensis, Cucumis sativus, Sesbania grandiflora, Sesbania sesban and Ziziphus mauritiana, respectively. These high amounts of Mn were also associated with high amounts of Ca (Table S1), since Mg can replace Ca in its functions [60]. The high Zn levels of the above-reported seeds are nutritionally relevant, since Zn deficiencies are prevalent in India [51].
Trace elements (Ti, V, Cr, Co, Mo and Pb) were detected in 35, 7, 27, 73, 2, 11 18 and 51 cultivars (Table S1) in the following ranges: 0.9–14, 0.1–0.3, 0.3–3.3, 0.1–0.6, 0.1–0.2, 0.1–0.2, 0.1–2.7 and 0.1–0.5 mg/100 g. The maximum accumulation of Ti and V, Cr, Co, As, and Pb, Se and Mo was observed in Trachyspermum ammi, Bauhinia vahlii, Solanum virginianum, Phoenix sylvestris, Parkia javanica and Sesbania grandiflora. In the case of Pb, the levels of this toxic element are within the normal range of other seeds from India [29,40].

2.4. Variations in Mineral Levels as a Function of Plant Type and Family

The mineral concentration variation as a function of plant type is presented in Table 2. Remarkably, high contents of Na and S, Mg-K-Fe-Mo, Al-Cl-Ca-Mn-Co-Ba, P-Cu-Zn were detected in the tree, shrub, herb and vine species, respectively. The taxonomical seed mineral concentration variations are shown in Figure 2 and Table S2. The highest total mineral contents were found in seeds from the Santalaceae, Burseraceae, Lythraceae, Moringaceae, Apiaceae, Moraceae, Papeveraceae, Solanaceae and Arecaceae families.
The nutrients in the soil solution can interact with each other, affecting their absorption and bioavailability [22]. The P/S (n = 155), K/P (n = 155) and Ca/Mg (n = 143) ratios in the seeds were in the 0.06–4.96, 0.24–21.07 and 0.04–12.61 ranges, respectively. Their minimum and maximum values were observed in Parkia javanica and Persicaria punctate; in Trapa natans and Gardenia thunbergia; and in Luffa aegyptiaca and Papaver somniferum seeds, respectively. These are ratios that have been previously described for other seeds from India [29,40].

2.5. Statistical Relationship among Mineral and Phytochemical Contents

Due to the large number of minerals and polyphenols studied (n = 22), a principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to obtain a low number of linear combinations of such parameters that explained data variability. We included those families that were the most representative in the study (with at least five different botanical species). Figure 3 depicts the results obtained, showing the main drivers on the separation of botanical families (total phenols, flavonoids, Ca, Cl, K, P and S). The combination of two components explained 88.77% of the variance. The PCA grouped the seeds from the Apiaceae family due to their high Cl and P contents. On the opposite, samples from the Brassicaceae family grouped in a different sector due to their high S levels. Fabaceae seeds also had an important content of S. Flavonoids and total phenols also played a role, especially for the Anacardiaceae family (Figure 3).

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Sample Collection and Preparation

Seeds from 155 species (listed in Table 1), belonging to 49 families, were collected in 2018 in the Raipur area (21.25° N 81.63° E), India, and were identified using standard monographs [52]. For each species, samples from 4 different plants and growing in 4 different locations were collected and were mixed to form composite samples.
The samples were sundried for one week in a glass room and stored in glass bottles. They were further dried for 12 h in a hot-air oven at 50 °C (then, the seeds were stored at −20 °C until analysis). These drying steps could be easily performed by local farmers as well as from small to large companies. The mass was measured using a Mettler–Toledo (Columbus, OH, USA) electronic balance. The testa of 74 examined seeds was carefully removed (manually), and both kernel and seed coat were weighted. Dried seeds or kernels were crushed into powder form using an agate mortar, and particles ≤0.1 mm were sieved out.
Moisture content was determined by drying the samples at 105 ± 2 °C in an air oven for 3 h, and the reported mean values were calculated using the following equation [61]:
% Moisture content = {(w1 − w2)/w1} × 100
where w1 and w2 denote the initial and the dry weight (DW) of the sample, respectively.
Ash residue was evaluated by heating to 550 ± 25 °C in a muffle furnace till constant weight was reached [61] and was reported according to the expression:
% Ash residue = (Wash/Wseed) × 100
where Wash and Wseed denote the weight of the ash residue and the dry weight of the sample, respectively.

3.2. Total Phenolic Compound and Flavonoid Determination

The seed samples in powder form (100 mg) were dispersed in 5 mL of an acetone/water (7:3, v:v) solution and were sonicated in an ultra-sonic bath for 20 min at 20 °C [26]. Then, 5 mL of fresh acetone:water (7:3, v:v) solution was added to the mixture, and the extraction was repeated for 20 min at 20 °C. After centrifugation, the supernatant was collected [62]. Sigma-Aldrich AR-grade Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, aluminum chloride, tannic acid, gallic acid and quercetin were used for the spectrophotometric determination of phenols. The total phenolic content of each extract was determined as tannic acid equivalents using the Folin–Ciocalteu method [19]. The reaction was carried out in an alkaline medium at room temperature (27 ± 2 °C). After a standing time of 40 min, the absorbance was measured at λ = 725 nm against the reagent blank. A calibration curve was prepared for the absorbance of 2.0, 4.0, 6.0 and 8.0 mg tannin/L. The detection limit (>3 std. dev.) of the method was 0.80 µg/mL as tannic acid. The slope (13.4) and intercept (0) obtained were used for computing the concentration of total phenolic compounds in the sample solution.
The flavonoid content was determined by the aluminum chloride method as quercetin equivalents [63]. Aluminum ions were allowed to react with flavonoids in the presence of tartrate buffer, and the absorbance of the complex formed after a 30 min incubation period was measured at λ = 415 nm against the reagent blank. A calibration curve for 4.0, 6.0, 8.0 and 10.0 mg quercetin/L was prepared. The detection limit of the method (>3 std. dev.) was 0.54 µg/mL as quercetin. The derived slope (20.5) and intercept (0.85) were employed for estimating the concentration of flavonoids in the sample solution.

3.3. Mineral Content Determination

A Bruker Tracer i5 spectrometer (Kennewick, WA, USA) was used for the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the elements in the samples [64]. Four standard reference materials, brown and white cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) seeds, cowpea and mango leaves with reference values were used for validation of the XRF results. The detection limits of the method for the analysis of P, S, Cl, As, Se, Na, K, Rb, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, Mo and Pb were 2.4, 3.9, 8.8, 0.1, 0.1, 395, 6.4, 0.1, 79, 3.5, 0.1, 30, 133, 3.5, 1.0, 0.9, 1.4, 1.0, 0.2, 0.2, 0.1 and 0.1 mg/kg, respectively [65,66]. All analyses were carried out in triplicate, and mean values were reported.

3.4. Statistical Analysis

Each analysis was carried out in triplicate. A principal component analysis was used to classify the seeds from the 155 species as a function of their mineral and phytochemical contents using Statistica 10.0 (StatSoft, Tulsa, OK, USA) software.

4. Conclusions

A wide variety of seeds belonging to herb (57), tree (64), shrub (14) and vine (20) plant types were investigated, focusing on their phenolic and mineral contents. Remarkably, high contents of total phenolic compounds (>4000 mg/100 g) were detected in the seeds from Argemone mexicana (Mexican poppy), Nigella sativa (black cumin), Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), Sesamum radiatum (benniseed) and Solena amplexicaulis (creeping cucumber). A. mexicana and S. radiatum also featured the highest flavonoid contents. Regarding mineral levels, Parkia javanica and Santalum album (Indian sandalwood) featured the highest total concentrations (around 7900 mg/100 g). Taking all this information into account, seeds from different species could be a valuable source of mineral elements and phenolic compounds for the Indian population if such seeds were properly cooked or used as condiments for regular foods.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/molecules27103184/s1, Figure S1: Physical characteristics of seeds; Table S1: Mineral element concentration of seeds (mg/100 g); Table S2: Mineral element concentration in cultivars familywise (mg/100 g).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.S.P.; methodology, P.K.S. and A.C.-M.; formal analysis, S.C., E.K.T. and J.J.Q.-G.; investigation, A.C.-M., J.J.Q.-G. and P.M.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S.P. and J.A.R.-H.; writing—review and editing, A.C.-M. and J.A.R.-H.: funding acquisition, K.S.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by the University Grant Commission through grant No. F.18-1/2011(BSR)2016 under a basic science research (BSR) fellowship awarded to KSP.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data are included along the text in the corresponding tables.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Sample Availability

Original seeds are available upon request to Patel.

References

  1. Łoźna, K.; Styczyńska, L.; Hyla, J.; Bienkiewicz, M.; Figurska-Ciura, D.; Biernat, J.; Bronkowska, M. Mineral composition of tree nuts and seeds. J. Elem. 2020, 25, 745–756. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Caballero, B.; Trugo, L.; Finglas, P.M. Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 3rd ed.; Academic Press: London, UK, 2006; pp. 134–138. [Google Scholar]
  3. Preedy, V.R.; Watson, R.R.; Patel, V.B. Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention, 1st ed.; Academic Press: London, UK, 2011; pp. 243–247. [Google Scholar]
  4. Bistanji, G.; Hamadeh, S.; Hassan, H.; Tami, F.; Tannous, R. The potential of agro-industrial byproducts as feeds for livestock in Lebanon. Livest. Res. Rural. Dev. 2000, 12, 1–6. [Google Scholar]
  5. Lokanadhan, S.; Muthukrishnan, P.; Jeyaraman, S. Neem products and their agricultural applications. J. Biopest 2012, 5, 72–76. [Google Scholar]
  6. Gama, T. Quality of tree nuts: A review. Sci. Hortic. 2018, 242, 116–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Lorenzo, J.M.; Mousavi-Khaneghah, A.; Gavahian, M.; Marszałek, K.; Es, I.; Munekata, P.E.S.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R.; Barba, F.J. Understanding the potential benefits of thyme and its derived products for food industry and consumer health: From extraction of value-added compounds to the evaluation of bioaccesibility, bioavailability, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 2879–2895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Panfili, G.; Niro, S.; Bufano, A.; D′Agostino, A.; Fratianni, A.; Paura, B.; Falasca, L.; Cinquanta, L. Bioactive Compounds in Wild Asteraceae Edible Plants Consumed in the Mediterranean Diet. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2020, 75, 540–546. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Pérez-Jiménez, J.; Neveu, V.F.; Scalbert, A. Identification of the 100 richest dietary sources of polyphenols: An application of the Phenol-Explorer database. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010, 64, S112–S120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Pastoriza, S.; Mesías, M.; Cabrera, C.; Rufián-Henares, J.A. Healthy properties of Green and White teas: An update. Food Funct. 2016, 8, 2650–2662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Pandey, K.B.; Rizvi, S.I. Plant polyphenols as dietary antioxidants in human health and disease. Oxid. Med. Cell Longev. 2009, 2, 270–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  12. Arjeh, E.; Akhavan, H.R.; Barzegar, M.; Carbonell-Barrachina, A. Bioactive compounds and functional properties of pistachio hull: A review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 97, 55–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Mojzer, E.B.; Hrncic, M.K.; Škerget, M.; Knez, Ž.; Bren, U. Polyphenols: Extraction methods, antioxidative action, bioavailability and anticarcinogenic effects. Molecules 2016, 21, 901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Khang, D.; Dung, T.; Elzaawely, A.; Xuan, T. Phenolic profiles and antioxidant activity of germinated legumes. Foods 2016, 5, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Niroula, A.; Khatri, S.; Khadka, D.; Timilsina, R. Total phenolic contents and antioxidant activity profile of selected cereal sprouts and grasses. Int. J. Food Proper 2019, 22, 427–437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  16. Pandey, M.M.; Vijayakumar, M.; Rastogi, S.; Rawat, A.K.S. Phenolic content and antioxidant properties of selected Indian spices of Apiaceae. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants 2012, 18, 246–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Karaś, M.; Jakubczyk, A.; Szymanowska, U.; Złotek, U.; Zielińska, E. Digestion and bioavailability of bioactive phytochemicals. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2017, 52, 291–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Herbello-Hermelo, P.; Lamas, J.P.; Lores, M.; Domínguez-González, R.; Bermejo-Barrera, P.; Moreda-Piñeiro, A. Polyphenol bioavailability in nuts and in vitro dialyzability approach. Food Chem. 2018, 254, 20–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Singleton, V.L.; Orthofer, R.; Lamuela-Raventós, R.M. Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Meth. Enzymol. 1999, 299, 152–178. [Google Scholar]
  20. Fogarasi, M.; Socaci, S.A.; Dulf, F.V.; Diaconeasa, Z.M.; Fărcas, A.C.; Tofană, M.; Semeniuc, C.A. Bioactive Compounds and Volatile Profiles of Five Transylvanian Wild Edible Mushrooms. Molecules 2018, 23, 3272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Moreno-Montoro, M.; Olalla-Herrera, M.; Gimenez-Martinez, R.; Navarro-Alarcon, M.; Rufián-Henares, J.A. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of Spanish commercial grape juices. J. Food Comp. Anal. 2015, 38, 19–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Freitas, J.; Fernandes, D.; Czeder, L.P.; Lima, J.; Sousa, A.; Naves, M. Edible seeds and nuts. Grown in Brazil as sources of protein for human nutrition. Food Nutr. Sci. 2012, 3, 857–862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Ferranti, P.; Berry, E.M.; Anderson, J.R. Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, 1st ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2019; pp. 124–374. [Google Scholar]
  24. Danuko, R.N.; Tapsell, L.C.; Charlton, K.E.; Neale, E.P.; O’Donnell, K.M.; Batterham, M.J. Relationship between sodium and potassium intake and blood pressure in a sample of overweight adults. Nutrition 2017, 33, 285–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Gouveia, C.S.S.; Freitas, G.; de Brito, J.H.; Slaski, J.J.; de Carvalho, M.A.P. Nutritional and Mineral Variability in 52 Accessions of Common Bean Varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from Madeira Island. Agric. Sciences. 2014, 5, 317–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Ribeiro, N.D.; Maziero, S.M.; Prigol, M.; Nogueira, C.W.; Rosa, D.P.; Della, M.T.; Possobom, F. Mineral concentrations in the embryo and seed coat of common bean cultivars. J. Food Comp. Anal. 2012, 26, 89–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Pinakin, D.J.; Kumar, V.; Kumar, A.; Gat, Y.; Suri, S.; Sharma, K. Mahua: A boon for pharmacy and food industry. Curr. Res. Nutr. Food Sci. 2018, 6, 371–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Deng, L.Z.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Zhang, Q.; Yang, X.H.; Wang, J.; Zheng, Z.A.; Gao, Z.J.; Xiao, H.W. Chemical and physical pretreatments of fruits and vegetables: Effects on drying characteristics and quality attributes–a comprehensive review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 59, 1408–1432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Cervera-Mata, A.; Kumar Sahu, P.; Chakradhari, S.; Sahu, Y.K.; Patel, K.S.; Singh, S.; Towett, E.K.; Martín-Ramos, P.; Quesada-Granados, J.J.; Rufián-Henares, J.A. Plant seeds as source of nutrients and phytochemicals for the Indian population. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 57, 525–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Isam, A.; Ahmed, M.; Uslu, N.; Özcan, M.M.; Juhaimi, F.; Ghafoor, K.; Babiker, E.E.; Osman, M.M.; Alqah, H.A.S. Effect of conventional oven roasting treatment on the physicochemical quality attributes of sesame seeds obtained from different locations. Food Chem. 2021, 338, 128109. [Google Scholar]
  31. Syed, F.; Arif, S.; Ahmed, I.; Khalid, N. Groundnut (Peanut) (Arachis hypogaea). In Oilseeds: Health Attributes and Food Applica-tions, 1st ed.; Tanwar, B., Goyal, A., Eds.; Springer: Singapore; Serdang, Malaysia, 2021; pp. 93–122. [Google Scholar]
  32. Selamoglu, Z. Biotechnological approaches on anticancer activity of flavonoids-mini review. Mod. Approaches Drug Des. 2017, 1, 1–2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Schultz, W.M.; Varghese, T.; Heinl, R.E.; Dhindsa, D.S.; Mahlof, E.N.; Cai, H.C.; Southmayd, G.; Sandesara, P.B.; Eapen, D.J.; Sperling, L.S. Natural approaches in diabetes management: A review of diet, Exercise, and natural products. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2018, 24, 84–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Mili, A.; Das, S.; Nandakumar, K.; Lobo, A. A comprehensive review on Sesamum indicum L.: Botanical, ethnopharmacological, phytochemical, and pharmacological aspects. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2021, 281, 114503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Amalfitano, C.; Golubkina, N.A.; Vacchio, L.; Russo, G.; Cannoniero, M.; Somma, S.; Morano, G.; Cuciniello, A.; Caruso, G. Yield, Antioxidant Components, Oil Content, and Composition of Onion Seeds Are Influenced by Planting Time and Density. Plants 2019, 8, 293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  36. Golubkina, N.A.; Nadezhkin, S.M.; Agafonov, A.F.; Kosheleva, O.V.; Molchanova, A.V.; Russo, G.; Cuciniello, A.; Caruso, G. Seed oil content, fatty acids composition and antioxidant properties as affected by genotype in Allium cepa L. and perennial onion species. Adv. Hort. Sci 2015, 29, 199–206. [Google Scholar]
  37. Žilic, S.; Dragišic, J.; Maksimovic, V.; Maksimovic, M.; Basic, Z.; Crevar, M.; Stankovic, G. The content of antioxidants in sunflower seed and kernel. Helia 2010, 33, 75–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Rizki, H.; Kzaiber, F.; Elharfi, M.; Ennahli, S.; Hanine, H. Chemical composition and morphological markers of 35 cultivars of sesame (Sesamum indicum. L) from different areas in Morocco. Int. J. Technol. Enhanc. Emerg. Eng. Res. 2015, 3, 50–55. [Google Scholar]
  39. Rizki, H.; Kzaiber, F.; Elharfi, M.; Latrache, H.; Zahir, H.; Hanine, H. Physicochemical characterization and in vitro antioxidant capacity of 35 cultivars of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) from different areas in Morocco. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 2014, 3, 2306–2311. [Google Scholar]
  40. Sahu, Y.K.; Patel, K.S.; Martın-Ramos, P.; Towett, E.K. Characterization of polyphenols and mineral contents in three medicinal weeds. Eur. J. Med. Plants 2019, 28, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Gobalakrishnan, R.; Bhuvaneswari, R.; Rajkumar, M. Natural antimicrobial and bioactive compounds from Ludwigia parviflora Roxb. J. Anal. Pharm. Res. 2020, 9, 37–42. [Google Scholar]
  42. Ishikawa, T.; Kondo, K.; Kitajima, J. Water-soluble constituents of coriander. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2003, 51, 32–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Barros, L.; Duenas, M.; Dias, M.I.; Sousa, M.J.; Santos-Buelga, C.; Ferreira, I.C. Phenolic profiles of in vivo and in vitro grown Coriandrum sativum L. Food Chem. 2012, 132, 841–848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Oganesyan, E.; Nersesyan, Z.; Parkhomenko, A.Y. Chemical composition of the above-ground part of Coriandrum sativum. Pharm. Chem. J. 2007, 41, 149–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Mahleyuddin, N.N.; Moshawih, S.; Ming, L.C.; Zulkifly, H.H.; Kifli, N.; Loy, M.J.; Sarker, M.M.R.; Al-Worafi, Y.M.; Goh, B.H.; Thuraisingam, S.; et al. Coriandrum sativum L.: A Review on Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Cardiovascular Benefits. Molecules 2022, 27, 209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Aline, L.M.; Lamien, C.E.; Compaoré, M.M.Y.; Meda, R.N.T.; Kiendrebeogo, M.; Jeanne, B.Z.; Nacoulma, O.G. Polyphenol content and antioxidant activity of fourteen wild edible fruits from Burkina Faso. Molecules 2008, 13, 581–594. [Google Scholar]
  47. Ebert, A.W. Potential of underutilized traditional vegetables and legume crops to contribute to food and nutritional security, income and more sustainable production systems. Sustainability 2014, 6, 319–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Saikia, P.; Deka, D.C. Mineral content of some wild green leafy vegetables of North-East India. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2013, 5, 117–121. [Google Scholar]
  49. Mark, H.E.; Houghton, L.A.; Gibson, R.S.; Monterrosa, E.; Kraemer, K. Estimating dietary micronutrient supply and the prevalence of inadequate intakes from national Food Balance Sheets in the South Asia region. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutrition. 2016, 25, 368–376. [Google Scholar]
  50. Devi, S.M.; Balachandar, V.; Lee, S.I.; Kim, I.H. An outline of meat consumption in the Indian population-A pilot review. Korean J. Food Sci. Anim. Resour. 2014, 34, 507–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  51. Rao, N.D.; Min, J.; DeFries, R.; Ghosh-Jerath, S.; Valin, H.; Fanzo, J. Healthy, affordable and climate-friendly diets in India. Glob. Environ. Change 2018, 49, 154–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Khare, C.P. Indian Medicinal Plants, 1st ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2008; pp. 243–246. [Google Scholar]
  53. Pandey, R. Mineral Nutrition of Plants. In Plant Biology and Biotechnology, 1st ed.; Bahadur, B., Venkat, R.M., Sahijram, L., Krishnamurthy, K., Eds.; Springer: New Delhi, India, 2015; pp. 499–538. [Google Scholar]
  54. Céccoli, G.; Ramos, J.; Pilatti, V.; Dellaferrera, I.; Tivano, J.C.; Taleisnik, E.; Vegetti, A.C. Salt glands in the Poaceae family and their relationship to salinity tolerance. Bot. Rev. 2015, 81, 162–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  55. Obadi, M.; Sun, J.; Xu, B. Highland barley: Chemical composition, bioactive compounds, health effects, and applications. Food Res. Int. 2021, 140, 110065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Liang, K.; Liang, S.; Lu, L.; Zhu, D.; Cheng, L. Geographical origin traceability of foxtail millet based on the combination of multi-element and chemical composition analysis. Int. J. Food Prop. 2018, 21, 1769–1777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Abdi, M.R.; Rezaee-Ebrahim-Saraee, K.; Fard, M.R.; Baradaran-Ghahfarokhi, M. Potential health concerns of trace elements and mineral content in commonly consumed greenhouse vegetables in Isfahan, Iran. Adv. Biomed. Res. 2015, 4, 214. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  58. Sene, B.; Sarr, F.; Diouf, D.; Kane, A.; Traore, D. Study of mineral composition and contents about proteins and fats of eight sesame varieties (Sesamum indicum L.) introduced in Senegal for variety screening. OCL 2018, 25, A601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Okello, J.; Okullo, J.; Eilu, G.; Nyeko, P.; Obua, J. Mineral composition of Tamarindus indica LINN (tamarind) pulp and seeds from different agro-ecological zones of Uganda. Food Sci. Nutr. 2017, 5, 959–966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Alejandro, S.; Holler, S.; Meier, B.; Peiter, E. Manganese in plants: From acquisition to subcellular allocation. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  61. AOAC. Determination of moisture, ash, protein and fat. In Official Method of Analysis of the Association of Analytical Chemists, 18th ed.; AOAC: Washington, DC, USA, 2005; pp. 141–144. [Google Scholar]
  62. Bertaud, F.; Tapin-Lingua, S.; Pizzi, A.; Navarrete, P.; Petit-Conil, M. Characterisation of industrial barks for their tannin contents for further green-wood based adhesives applications. In Proceedings of the COST FP0901, Hamburg, Germany, 20 August 2010. [Google Scholar]
  63. Chang, C.C.; Yang, M.H.; Wen, H.M.; Chern, J.C. Estimation of total flavonoid content in propolis by two complementary colorimetric methods. J. Food Drug Anal. 2002, 10, 178–182. [Google Scholar]
  64. Towett, E.K.; Shepherd, K.D.; Drake, B.L. Plant elemental composition and portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) spectroscopy: Quantification under different analytical parameters. X-ray Spectr. 2016, 45, 117–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  65. Rousseau, R.M. Detection limit and estimate of uncertainty of analytical XRF results. Rigaku J. 2001, 18, 33–47. [Google Scholar]
  66. Sandström, B. Micronutrient interactions: Effects on absorption and bioavailability. Br. J. Nutr. 2001, 85, S181–S185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Molecules 27 03184 g001 550
Figure 1. Total polyphenol (panel A) and total flavonoid (panel B) contents grouped by families.
Figure 1. Total polyphenol (panel A) and total flavonoid (panel B) contents grouped by families.
Molecules 27 03184 g001
Molecules 27 03184 g002 550
Figure 2. Mineral element content grouped by families.
Figure 2. Mineral element content grouped by families.
Molecules 27 03184 g002
Molecules 27 03184 g003 550
Figure 3. Principal component analysis of mineral and phytochemical contents.
Figure 3. Principal component analysis of mineral and phytochemical contents.
Molecules 27 03184 g003
Table
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics and phenolic compounds of seeds.
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics and phenolic compounds of seeds.
No.SeedFamilyTypeMass
mg		Moisture
Content %		Seed Coat
%		Ash
%		Total Phenols
mg/100 g		Flavonoids
mg/100 g
1Coriandrum sativum L.ApiaceaeH17.87 ± 2.617.8 ± 0.2-6.8 ± 0.3481 ± 10405 ± 9
2Cuminum cyminum L.ApiaceaeH3.84 ± 0.096.8 ± 0.2-5.5 ± 0.1903 ± 19815 ± 17
3Daucus carota subsp. sativus (Hoffm.) Schübl. & MartensApiaceaeH4.11 ± 0.207.5 ± 0.2-4.8 ± 0.11685 ± 351485 ± 31
4Foeniculum vulgare Mill.ApiaceaeH4.73 ± 0.387.8 ± 0.2-4.5 ± 0.11056 ± 21880 ± 18
5Trachyspermum ammi SpragueApiaceaeH1.97 ± 0.096.2 ± 0.2-6.5 ± 0.21899 ± 40525 ± 11
6Allium cepa L.AmaryllidaceaeH3.98 ± 0.195.8 ± 0.1-5.2 ± 0.1447 ± 9405 ± 9
7Asparagus racemosus Willd.AsparagaceaeH32.33 ± 2.523.2 ± 0.1-2.2 ± 0.1395 ± 8200 ± 8
8Helianthus annuus L.AsteraceaeH50.00 ± 3.124.7 ± 0.1-4.1 ± 0.1590 ± 12490 ± 10
9Stevia rebaudiana Bert.AsteraceaeH2.00 ± 0.185.5 ± 0.1-3.2 ± 0.13441 ± 65256 ± 6
10Carthamus oxyacanthus M.Bieb.AsteraceaeH45.35 ± 2.514.6 ± 0.1-2.8 ± 0.11817 ± 381240 ± 25
11Anacardium occidentale L.AnacardiaceaeT4269 ± 8422.5 ± 0.159 ± 11.5 ± 0.1861 ± 18122 ± 3
12Buchanania lanzan Spreng.AnacardiaceaeT310 ± 575.2 ± 0.176 ± 22.5 ± 0.12588 ± 53406 ± 9
13Mangifera indica L.AnacardiaceaeT8336 ± 11312.9 ± 0.346 ± 14.5 ± 0.12583 ± 52792 ± 16
14Pistacia vera L.AnacardiaceaeT979 ± 1005.7 ± 0.147 ± 12.2 ± 0.12706 ± 54190 ± 4
15Semecarpus anacardium L.f.AnacardiaceaeT2516 ± 1701.9 ± 0.185 ± 22.5 ± 0.12476 ± 492048 ± 41
16Annona squamosa L.AnnonaceaeT242 ± 106.5 ± 0.237 ± 13.2 ± 0.1820 ± 17626 ± 13
17Areca catechu L. (Indian nut)AceraceaeT4380 ± 5572.2 ± 0.0-1.5 ± 0.01553 ± 311236 ± 25
18Areca catechu L. (Chikni Supari)AceraceaeT3375 ± 4512.4 ± 0.1-1.4 ± 0.02429 ± 50482 ± 9
19Phoenix dactylifera L.AceraceaeT1065 ± 2012.1 ± 0.0-1.5 ± 0.1767 ± 16346 ± 7
20Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.AceraceaeT817 ± 411.6 ± 0.0-1.8 ± 0.1930 ± 19770 ± 15
21Basella rubra L.BasellaceaeV38.00 ± 0.209.1 ± 0.247 ± 13.9 ± 0.1705 ± 14614 ± 13
22Bixa orellana L.BixaceaeS32.70 ± 2.502.5 ± 0.1-2.1 ± 0.02811 ± 572028 ± 42
23Brassica campestris L.BrassicaceaeH4.10 ± 0.308 ± 0.2-4.7 ± 0.81471 ± 29234 ± 5
24Brassica hirta MoenchBrassicaceaeH4.10 ± 0.305.0 ± 0.1-4.5 ± 0.11902 ± 38194 ± 4
25Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J.KochBrassicaceaeH1.02 ± 0.007.4 ± 0.1-3.2 ± 0.11288 ± 26254 ± 6
26Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.BrassicaceaeH3.30 ± 0.208.6 ± 0.2-3.8 ± 0.11790 ± 37242 ± 5
27Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.BrassicaceaeH3.20 ± 0.208.2 ± 0.3-3.7 ± 0.1972 ± 20292 ± 6
28Brassica rapa L.BrassicaceaeH3.10 ± 0.107.3 ± 0.2-2.4 ± 0.1471 ± 18382 ± 8
29Lepidium sativum L.BrassicaceaeH3.10 ± 0.306.4 ± 0.1-2.1 ± 0.1378 ± 8316 ± 7
30Raphanus sativus L.BrassicaceaeH10.20 ± 1.605.2 ± 0.1-3.6 ± 0.1266 ± 5238 ± 5
31Sisymbrium irio L.BrassicaceaeH0.21 ± 0.101.8 ± 0.1-2.0 ± 0.1683 ± 13590 ± 12
32Commiphora wightii (Arn.) BhandariBurseraceaeS163 ± 189.0 ± 0.2-4.8 ± 0.11834 ± 35656 ± 13
33Carica papaya L.CaricaceaeS15.50 ± 2.206.1 ± 0.1-5.1 ± 0.1646 ± 13542 ± 11
34Celastrus paniculatus Willd.CelastraceaeV170 ± 42.2 ± 0.17.0 ± 0.01.5 ± 0.02699 ± 542428 ± 50
35Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin (sage-leaf alangium)CornaceaeS229 ± 144.1 ± 0.14.0 ± 0.03.6 ± 0.11544 ± 31308 ± 7
36Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.CucurbitaceaeV63.80 ± 5.004.2 ± 0.147 ± 11.8 ± 0.4448 ± 9228 ± 9
37Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & NakaiCucurbitaceaeV38.40 ± 2.004.2 ± 0.149 ± 12.9 ± 0.1911 ± 19728 ± 15
38Cucumis melo var. flexuosus (L.) NaudinCucurbitaceaeV19.9 ± 3.004.5 ± 0.133 ± 12.3 ± 0.1361 ± 7236 ± 5
39Cucumis melo var. Cantalupo Ser.CucurbitaceaeV25.30 ± 2.507.3 ± 0.228 ± 11.9 ± 0.4437 ± 9340 ± 8
40Cucumis sativus L.CucurbitaceaeV23.40 ± 1.904.7 ± 0.135 ± 11.7 ± 0.1442 ± 8356 ± 10
41Cucurbita maxima DuchesneCucurbitaceaeV132 ± 214.4 ± 0.118 ± 11.5 ± 0.0542 ± 11110 ± 3
42Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. ReffreyCucurbitaceaeV86.20 ± 4.704.9 ± 0.144 ± 11.6 ± 0.1504 ± 11304 ± 6
43Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.CucurbitaceaeV216 ± 54.9 ± 0.142 ± 11.7 ± 0.11316 ± 271140 ± 24
44Luffa acutangula (L.) RoxbCucurbitaceaeV122 ± 123.9 ± 0.147 ± 11.5 ± 0.0235 ± 5138 ± 3
45Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.CucurbitaceaeV105 ± 33.2 ± 0.143 ± 11.4 ± 0.0306 ± 6252 ± 5
46Momordica charantia L. (big karela)CucurbitaceaeV189 ± 134.7 ± 0.135 ± 11.8 ± 0.1195 ± 4118 ± 3
47Momordica charantia L. (small karela)CucurbitaceaeV102 ± 35.8 ± 0.130 ± 11.6 ± 0.13394 ± 67170 ± 4
48Praecitrullus fistulosus (Stocks) PangaloCucurbitaceaeV115 ± 35.0 ± 0.145 ± 11.8 ± 0.01250 ± 23466 ± 14
49Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) GandhiCucurbitaceaeV178 ± 64.8 ± 0.132 ± 11.9 ± 0.14213 ± 81390 ± 8
50Shorea robusta C.F.Gaertn.DipterocarpaceaeT995 ± 159.5 ± 0.120 ± 14.5 ± 0.13157 ± 622794 ± 55
51Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.EbenaceaeT1310 ± 223.6 ± 0.1-3.5 ± 0.13546 ± 70810 ± 9
52Jatropha curcas L.EuphorbiaceaeS758 ± 157.5 ± 0.147 ± 15.5 ± 0.1495 ± 6426 ± 9
53Ricinus communis L.EuphorbiaceaeS621 ± 133.5 ± 0.221 ± 13.5 ± 0.1722 ± 15646 ± 13
54Acacia auriculiformis Benth.FabaceaeT33.00 ± 2.005.6 ± 0.435 ± 13.6 ± 0.1431 ± 9380 ± 8
55Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd.FabaceaeT57.00 ± 3.006.2 ± 0.545 ± 13.4 ± 0.1954 ± 19365 ± 7
56Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC.FabaceaeT224 ± 59.1 ± 0.639 ± 13.5 ± 0.1715 ± 15300 ± 6
57Acacia nilotica Schumach. & Thonn.FabaceaeT198 ± 47.8 ± 0.559 ± 13.8 ± 0.1257 ± 5255 ± 5
58Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr.FabaceaeT219 ± 52.5 ± 0.142 ± 12.5 ± 0.1518 ± 11460 ± 13
59Albizia lebbek (L.) BenthFabaceaeT74.30 ± 2.007.1 ± 0.243 ± 13.1 ± 0.1693 ± 14405 ± 9
60Albizia odoratissima (L.f.) BenthFabaceaeT159 ± 32.5 ± 0.142 ± 12.5 ± 0.1474 ± 15430 ± 10
61Bauhinia purpurea L.FabaceaeT360 ± 116.2 ± 0.130 ± 13.1 ± 0.11214 ± 22455 ± 9
62Bauhinia racemosa Lam.FabaceaeT173 ± 45.3 ± 0.172 ± 23.5 ± 0.12353 ± 47415 ± 8
63Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.FabaceaeT1855 ± 397.5 ± 0.244 ± 14.1 ± 0.1293 ± 6270 ± 6
64Butea frondosa Willd.FabaceaeT1003 ± 215.3 ± 0.1-4.5 ± 0.11816 ± 19410 ± 9
65Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) AlstonFabaceaeT320 ± 106.5 ± 0.237 ± 13.1 ± 0.1386 ± 8350 ± 7
66Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw.FabaceaeS38.00 ± 1.002.5 ± 0.163 ± 22.5 ± 0.12813 ± 562100 ± 41
67Cassia fistula L. (golden shower)FabaceaeT273 ± 54.1 ± 0.177 ± 22.1 ± 0.1823 ± 17460 ± 9
68Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.FabaceaeT164 ± 44.9 ± 0.125 ± 13.5 ± 0.1386 ± 8340 ± 7
69Pongamia pinnata (L.) PierreFabaceaeT1431 ± 304.5 ± 0.15.0 ± 0.12.5 ± 0.1477 ± 10410 ± 9
70Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd.FabaceaeT800 ± 177.1 ± 0.215 ± 05.5 ± 0.11610 ± 311390 ± 28
71Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers.FabaceaeT85.30 ± 1.503.1 ± 0.135 ± 14.2 ± 0.11774 ± 34550 ± 11
72Hardwickia binata Roxb.FabaceaeT294 ± 53.1 ± 0.1-2.2 ± 0.13494 ± 70580 ± 12
73Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.FabaceaeT880 ± 174.4 ± 0.156 ± 12.1 ± 0.12895 ± 57340 ± 7
74Tamarindus indica L.FabaceaeT977 ± 206.5 ± 0.215 ± 0.3.5 ± 0.1299 ± 3265 ± 6
75Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.FabaceaeS13.80 ± 0.201.0 ± 0.0--2234 ± 45500 ± 10
76Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb.FabaceaeT875 ± 46.5 ± 0.245 ± 14.2 ± 0.1418 ± 9325 ± 7
77Gliricidia maculata (Kunth) Steud.FabaceaeT130 ± 44.5 ± 0.118 ± 02.5 ± 0.11021 ± 21360 ± 7
78Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf.FabaceaeT510 ± 57.5 ± 0.269 ± 22.2 ± 0.1382 ± 8285 ± 5
79Entada gigas (L.) Fawc. & RendleFabaceaeV23623 ± 28.3 ± 0.240 ± 11.5 ± 0.01884 ± 17265 ± 5
80Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de WitFabaceaeS61.30 ± 0.506.5 ± 0.247 ± 11.6 ± 0.01243 ± 25320 ± 7
81Mimosa pudica L.FabaceaeV21.30 ± 0.503.2 ± 0.1-1.0 ± 0.01846 ± 17625 ± 13
82Parkia javanica Merr.FabaceaeT305 ± 56.5 ± 0.237 ± 11.5 ± 0.0988 ± 10910 ± 18
83Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & BarnebyFabaceaeT22.00 ± 1.003.6 ± 0.1-1.2 ± 0.0418 ± 9305 ± 6
84Juglans regia L.JuglandaceaeT12200 ± 2382.9 ± 0.132 ± 13.3 ± 0.1182 ± 4152 ± 3
85Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob.LauraceaeT248 ± 63.5 ± 0.143 ± 13.8 ± 0.11836 ± 171588 ± 29
86Linum usitatissimum L.LinaceaeH7.20 ± 0.104.9 ± 0.1-2.8 ± 0.1332 ± 6218 ± 5
87Strychnos potatorum L.f.LoganiaceaeT283 ± 54.8 ± 0.124 ± 14.1 ± 0.11068 ± 21964 ± 20
88Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.LythraceaeT2669 ± 505.2 ± 0.153 ± 16.5 ± 0.22350 ± 481060 ± 21
89Lawsonia inermis L.LythraceaeS22.00 ± 0.501.5 ± 0.0-2.1 ± 0.11990 ± 381088 ± 21
90Trapa natans L.LythraceaeH4923 ± 1008.8 ± 0.215 ± 04.3 ± 0.11595 ± 311360 ± 26
91Careya arborea Roxb.LecythidaceaeT423 ± 96.5 ± 0.235 ± 12.5 ± 0.12607 ± 532280 ± 45
92Azadirachta indica A.Juss.MeliaceaeT345 ± 76.1 ± 0.225 ± 13.5 ± 0.12438 ± 492162 ± 44
93Melia azedarach L.MeliaceaeT972 ± 204.5 ± 0.140 ± 13.5 ± 0.13500 ± 713130 ± 63
94Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) MoenchMalvaceaeH59.80 ± 1.004.2 ± 0.1-4.8 ± 0.1496 ± 9444 ± 9
95Abelmoschus moschatus (L.) MedikMalvaceaeH17.40 ± 0.304.1 ± 0.1-4.5 ± 0.12250 ± 411960 ± 19
96Abutilon indicum (Link) SweetMalvaceaeH5.43 ± 0.113.5 ± 0.1-4.3 ± 0.1458 ± 9436 ± 9
97Corchorus olitorius L.MalvaceaeH2.08 ± 0.123.8 ± 0.1-2.7 ± 0.1424 ± 9312 ± 7
98Corchorus olitorius L.MalvaceaeH1.05 ± 0.112.3 ± 0.1-2.6 ± 0.1770 ± 15668 ± 13
99Gossypium arboreum L.MalvaceaeH74.40 ± 3.003.9 ± 0.1-3.8 ± 0.12009 ± 401786 ± 37
100Hibiscus cannabinus L.MalvaceaeH22.90 ± 0.503.8 ± 0.1-3.3 ± 0.1840 ± 9730 ± 15
101Hibiscus sabdariffa L.MalvaceaeH24.60 ± 0.502.6 ± 0.1-3.6 ± 0.1508 ± 11394 ± 8
102Malachra capitata L.MalvaceaeH5.15 ± 0.142.9 ± 0.1-3.1 ± 0.1271 ± 6232 ± 7
103Sida acuta Burm.f.MalvaceaeH2.38 ± 0.104.4 ± 0.1-3.5 ± 0.1901 ± 18734 ± 14
104Sida cordifolia L.MalvaceaeH1.26 ± 0.117.6 ± 0.2-2.9 ± 0.12058 ± 41854 ± 17
105Sterculia foetida L.MalvaceaeT1244 ± 233.1 ± 0.1-1.5 ± 0.0256 ± 5152 ± 3
106Sterculia urens Roxb.MalvaceaeT193 ± 42.5 ± 0.129 ± 11.5 ± 0.0479 ± 8422 ± 8
107Thespesia populnea Sol. ex CorrêaMalvaceaeT162 ± 33.2 ± 0.147 ± 12.2 ± 0.02512 ± 522202 ± 43
108Urena lobata L.MalvaceaeV15.27 ± 2.563.6 ± 0.1-4.2 ± 0.1376 ± 8322 ± 6
109Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.MoraceaeT10640 ± 3430 ± 1.08.0 ± 0.26.1 ± 0.2888 ± 18316 ± 7
110Ficus racemosa L.MoraceaeT2626 ± 518.5 ± 0.227 ± 12.5 ± 0.1475 ± 10414 ± 8
111Moringa oleifera Lam.MoringaceaeT381 ± 86.5 ± 0.138 ± 13.5 ± 0.1316 ± 7264 ± 5
112Psidium guajava L.MyrtaceaeT27.70 ± 0.502.5 ± 0.1-1.2 ± 0.0296 ± 6210 ± 4
113Syzygium cumini (L.) SkeelsMyrtaceaeT1280 ± 244.5 ± 0.125 ± 13.2 ± 0.12845 ± 582298 ± 45
114Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.NelumbonaceaeH1213 ± 232.2 ± 0.112 ± 03.6 ± 0.12603 ± 54428 ± 5
115Argemone mexicana L.PapeveraceaeH2.03 ± 0.095.2 ± 0.1-1.7 ± 0.05000 ± 994465 ± 90
116Papaver somniferum L.PapeveraceaeH0.21 ± 0.004.4 ± 0.1-1.3 ± 0.04307 ± 863890 ± 75
117Passiflora foetida L.PassifloraceaeH7.13 ± 0.126.2 ± 0.1-2.1 ± 0.13622 ± 723170 ± 63
118Sesamum indicum L.PedaliaceaeH2.01 ± 0.033.5 ± 0.1-1.6 ± 0.02504 ± 492120 ± 40
119Sesamum radiatum Schumach. & Thonn.PedaliaceaeH1.07 ± 0.013.7 ± 0.1-1.5 ± 0.03398 ± 682975 ± 61
120Sesamum radiatum Schumach. & Thonn.PedaliaceaeH1.03 ± 0.003.8 ± 0.1-1.7 ± 0.04750 ± 974290 ± 85
121Piper nigrum L.PiperaceeH37.00 ± 0.608.7 ± 0.2-7.8 ± 0.21949 ± 201660 ± 32
122Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth.PhyllanthaceaeT155 ± 34.5 ± 0.1-2.5 ± 0.12208 ± 44675 ± 14
123Phyllanthus emblica L.PhyllanthaceaeT921 ± 218.1 ± 0.295 ± 21.5 ± 0.0493 ± 8375 ± 8
124Bridelia retusa A.Juss. (spinous kino tree)PhyllanthaceaeT154 ± 94.5 ± 0.119 ± 12.2 ± 0.13999 ± 823130 ± 63
125Persicaria punctate SmallPolygonaceaeH0.79 ± 0.102.1 ± 0.1-2.7 ± 0.11908 ± 39770 ± 15
126Putranjiva roxburghii Wall.PutranjivaceaeT478 ± 105.5 ± 0.166 ± 24.2 ± 0.1493 ± 10255 ± 5
127Nigella sativa L.RanunculaceaeH20.30 ± 2.155.5 ± 0.1-4.3 ± 0.14247 ± 863750 ± 39
128Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.RhamnaceaeT983 ± 2211 ± 0.390 ± 24.5 ± 0.11279 ± 251065 ± 11
129Anthocephalus indicus A.Rich.RubiaceaeT20253 ± 4336 ± 1.0-5.5 ± 0.11415 ± 27570 ± 12
130Gardenia thunbergia Thunb.RubiaceaeS5480 ± 1218.5 ± 0.237 ± 13.5 ± 0.1607 ± 11350 ± 7
131Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. WebbRosaceaeT2623 ± 414.5 ± 0.129 ± 12.5 ± 0.1598 ± 12265 ± 7
132Aegle marmelos L.RutaceaeT148 ± 33.5 ± 0.122 ± 11.5 ± 0.01899 ± 171530 ± 31
133Citrus limon (L.) Burm.f.RutaceaeS68.30 ± 1.304.1 ± 0.117 ± 04.8 ± 0.2567 ± 12510 ± 11
134Citrus × sinensis (L.) OsbeckRutaceaeS120 ± 35.4 ± 0.122 ± 15.1 ± 0.2663 ± 14375 ± 8
135Murraya koenigii Spreng.RutaceaeS155 ± 32.9 ± 0.112 ± 01.5 ± 0.02927 ± 392520 ± 52
136Santalum album L.SantalaceaeT183 ± 42.8 ± 0.140 ± 11.8 ± 0.11480 ± 311065 ± 22
137Cardiospermum halicacabum L.SapindaceaeV2.50 ± 0.203.1 ± 0.1-2.1 ± 0.1779 ± 15275 ± 6
138Litchi chinensis Sonn.SapindaceaeT2168 ± 4111 ± 0.2-5.5 ± 0.02043 ± 42410 ± 8
139Sapindus emarginatus Vahl.SapindaceaeT2148 ± 426.5 ± 0.161 ± 23.5 ± 0.1342 ± 7290 ± 6
140Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) OkenSapindaceaeT352 ± 74.1 ± 0.149 ± 13.6 ± 0.12442 ± 492195 ± 44
141Illicium verum Hook.f.SchisandraceaeH26.70 ± 0.505.5 ± 0.158 ± 23.7 ± 0.01323 ± 26565 ± 12
142Capsicum annuum L. (small mirch)SolanaceaeH6.30 ± 0.154.7 ± 0.1-4.3 ± 0.0460 ± 10320 ± 6
143Capsicum annuum L. (medium mirch)SolanaceaeH4.22 ± 0.104.3 ± 0.1-4.6 ± 0.1419 ± 9315 ± 7
144Datura stramonium L.SolanaceaeH18.20 ± 0.406.5 ± 0.1-3.5 ± 0.1935 ± 19510 ± 11
145Solanum lycopersicum L.SolanaceaeH2.01 ± 0.235.2 ± 0.1-5.3 ± 0.11298 ± 271080 ± 21
146Solanum melongena L. (white)SolanaceaeH3.02 ± 0.054.5 ± 0.1-5.1 ± 0.1728 ± 16445 ± 9
147Solanum melongena L. (purple)SolanaceaeH2.00 ± 0.046.4 ± 0.1-4.8 ± 0.1865 ± 17770 ± 15
148Solanum melongena L. (green)SolanaceaeH3.01 ± 0.066.5 ± 0.1-5.2 ± 0.0520 ± 11455 ± 9
149Solanum melongena L. (Singhi)SolanaceaeH2.01 ± 0.086.6 ± 0.1-4.9 ± 0.0681 ± 13470 ± 10
150Solanum virginianum L.SolenaceaeH2.02 ± 0.056.3 ± 0.1-6.5 ± 0.02123 ± 43680 ± 14
151Withania coagulans DunalSolanaceaeH399 ± 86.1 ± 0.115 ± 03.1 ± 0.0944 ± 20635 ± 13
152Withania somnifera (L.) DunalSolanaceaeH2.02 ± 0.061.4 ± 0.1-1.2 ± 0.0837 ± 17505 ± 10
153Lantana camara L.VerbenaceaeH20.40 ± 0.058.3 ± 0.1-2.1 ± 0.1614 ± 12265 ± 6
154Amomum subulatum Roxb.ZingiberaceaeH17.40 ± 0.064.3 ± 0.1-4.3 ± 0.1427 ± 9340 ± 7
155Elettaria cardamomum MatonZingiberaceaeH10.30 ± 0.205.1 ± 0.1-4.6 ± 0.0298 ± 6265 ± 5
H = Herb, S = Shrub, V = Vine, T = Tree.
Table
Table 2. Mineral elements in cultivar with respect to plant type (mg/100 g).
Table 2. Mineral elements in cultivar with respect to plant type (mg/100 g).
TypeNaMgAlPSClKCaTiCrMnFeCoCuZnRbSrMoBaPb
T2861690.93494352110343340.30.23.2420.061.33.51.50.90.070.10.07
S2072186.43802813412393681.30.23.91070.021.15.21.41.40.120.00.07
H13720610.3449327809744991.00.16.9350.071.44.31.62.50.010.50.05
V0.01560.049622695811560.20.05.5200.021.55.51.30.60.010.10.03
H = Herb, T = Tree, V = Vine, S = Shrub.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sahu, P.K.; Cervera-Mata, A.; Chakradhari, S.; Singh Patel, K.; Towett, E.K.; Quesada-Granados, J.J.; Martín-Ramos, P.; Rufián-Henares, J.A. Seeds as Potential Sources of Phenolic Compounds and Minerals for the Indian Population. Molecules 2022, 27, 3184. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103184

AMA Style

Sahu PK, Cervera-Mata A, Chakradhari S, Singh Patel K, Towett EK, Quesada-Granados JJ, Martín-Ramos P, Rufián-Henares JA. Seeds as Potential Sources of Phenolic Compounds and Minerals for the Indian Population. Molecules. 2022; 27(10):3184. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103184

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sahu, Pravin Kumar, Ana Cervera-Mata, Suryakant Chakradhari, Khageshwar Singh Patel, Erick K. Towett, José J. Quesada-Granados, Pablo Martín-Ramos, and José A. Rufián-Henares. 2022. "Seeds as Potential Sources of Phenolic Compounds and Minerals for the Indian Population" Molecules 27, no. 10: 3184. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103184

APA Style

Sahu, P. K., Cervera-Mata, A., Chakradhari, S., Singh Patel, K., Towett, E. K., Quesada-Granados, J. J., Martín-Ramos, P., & Rufián-Henares, J. A. (2022). Seeds as Potential Sources of Phenolic Compounds and Minerals for the Indian Population. Molecules, 27(10), 3184. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103184

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop