Amaranth Seeds and Sprouts as Functional Ingredients for the Development of Dietary Fiber, Betalains, and Polyphenol-Enriched Minced Tilapia Meat Gels
by
,
Iza F. Pérez-Ramírez
1,*,
Ana M. Sotelo-González
1,
Gerardo López-Echevarría
2 and
Miguel A. Martínez-Maldonado
3,* 1
Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro 76010, Mexico
2
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CICATA Unidad Querétaro, Querétaro 76090, Mexico
3
División de Gastronomía, Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Huichapan, Huichapan 42411, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2023, 28(1), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010117
Submission received: 17 November 2022
/
Revised: 16 December 2022
/
Accepted: 18 December 2022
/
Published: 23 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring Bioactive Polyphenolic Compounds in Food and Natural Real-World Samples)
Abstract
:There is an increasing interest in the development of meat processed products enriched with antioxidant dietary fiber to augment the consumption of these health beneficial compounds. This study aimed to evaluate the nutritional, nutraceutical, and antioxidant potential, as well as the physicochemical properties of minced tilapia fillets (meat) gels with added amaranth seed or sprout flours (0%, 2%, 4%, 8%, and 10% w/w). Dietary fiber content was significantly increased with the addition of amaranth seed (1.25–1.75-fold) and sprout flours (1.99–3.21-fold). Tilapia gels with added 10% amaranth seed flour showed a high content of extractable dihydroxybenzoic acid and cinnamic acid, whereas the addition of 10% amaranth sprout flour provided a high and wide variety of bioactive compounds, mainly amaranthine and bound ferulic acid. The addition of amaranth seed and sprout flours increased hardness (1.01–1.73-fold) without affecting springiness, decreased luminosity (1.05–1.15-fold), and increased redness and yellowness. Therefore, amaranth seed and sprout flours could be used as functional ingredients for the development of fish products rich in bioactive compounds.
1. Introduction
Tilapia is a mild-flavored freshwater fish native to Africa but is currently farmed in over 135 countries around the world. The global market of tilapia increased from 3 million to over 6 million tons from 2010 to 2020 at a growth rate higher than 7%. Tilapia is one of the most consumed seafood worldwide and occupies fourth place in the USA market since it is a low-cost source of protein (about 14–19%) with a low content of fat (about 1.7–4.0%) [1,2].
Despite the high content of protein in fish and its derived processed products, one major disadvantage is the low content of dietary fiber, which is widely distributed in plant materials such as cereals, fruits, and vegetables. There is an increasing interest in the development of food products rich in dietary fiber to fulfill the recommendations of daily intake. Moreover, several dietary fiber sources are rich in antioxidant compounds, such as polyphenols, which provide added value, since antioxidant dietary fibers (ADFs) are considered human health promoters [3]. Currently, some consumers in some parts of the world are interested in convenient food products with high and complete nutritional value; therefore, the addition of ADFs to meat processed products is an interesting opportunity to satisfy their demands and to promote the consumption of processed foods with high nutrient value [4].
Interestingly, the addition of ADF sources not only increases the content of dietary fiber and antioxidant compounds of meat processed products but also modifies their physicochemical/techno-functional properties. In this regard, the addition of 6% cabbage powder or 25% oyster mushroom increased the hardness and springiness of mutton patties and chicken patties, respectively [5,6,7]. Conversely, the addition of 0.5–1% guava powder or 1–2% moringa flower negatively affected the texture of sheep and chicken nuggets [8,9]. Regarding fish-derived products, the addition of 2–4% grape pomace increased the hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness of anchovy mince without affecting its chewiness [10].
Therefore, the effect of ADF sources on the texture of meat processed products relies on the type and amount of dietary fiber, as well as the meat product. An interesting source of ADF is amaranth, which is a pseudo-cereal originally from America but is currently cultivated worldwide. Amaranth seeds are considered a low-cost source of dietary fiber, protein, and antioxidant compounds [11], which are increased during sprouting [12]. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate amaranth seed and sprout flours as ADF sources to improve the nutritional and nutraceutical content, as well as the antioxidant and techno-functional properties, of minced tilapia fish meat (fillet) processed products.
2. Results
2.1. Evaluation of the Nutritional Composition of Minced Tilapia Meat Gels Enriched with Amaranth Seed or Sprout Flours
Amaranth sprouts showed a slight but significant (p < 0.05) decreased protein content as compared to amaranth seed flours (1.1-fold; Table S2), but no significant changes were observed in the protein content of minced tilapia meat gels with added 2–10% amaranth seed or sprout flours (Table 1). On the other hand, amaranth fat content was slightly but significantly decreased in the sprout flour as compared to the seed flour (1.2-fold; Table S1). Interestingly, the addition of amaranth seed or sprout flours significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the lipid content of minced tilapia meat gels from 1.2- to 2.2-fold (Table 1).
Amaranth sprout flour showed a 1.1-fold decreased carbohydrate content and a 3.08-fold increased dietary fiber content as compared to amaranth seed flour (Table S2). Accordingly, the addition of 2–10% amaranth seed or sprout flours significantly increased the carbohydrate content of minced tilapia meat gels (2.1–4.9-fold and 2.1–4.5-fold, respectively), whereas dietary fiber was increased from 1.5- to 1.8-fold with 4–10% amaranth seed flour and from 2.0 to 3.2-fold with 2–10% amaranth sprout flour (Table 1).
2.2. Evaluation of the Polyphenol and Betalain Composition of Minced Tilapia Meat Gels Enriched with Amaranth Seed or Sprout Flours
The sprouting process significantly increased amaranth free polyphenol and flavonoid content (2.87- and 1.89-fold, respectively; Table S3). The major extractable polyphenol identified in amaranth seed was vanillic acid, followed by dihydroxybenzoic acid, kaempferol rutinoside, and cinammic acid (Table S4). Sprouting significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the content of some major extractable polyphenols of amaranth seeds, such as vanillic acid (1.65-fold), dihydroxybenzoic acid hexoside (1.68-fold), and cinnamic acid (2.34-fold) but augmented the content of kaempferol rutinoside (1.80-fold) and rutin (2.10-fold). This latter flavonoid was the second major extractable polyphenol identified in amaranth sprout flour, following vanillic acid. Interestingly, several polyphenols were only detected in amaranth sprout flours: hydroxybenzoic acid, caffeic acid, feruloylquinic acid, and ferulic acid.
Regarding the minced tilapia gels, the control sample (with added 0% amaranth) showed a high content of total polyphenols (150 mg/100 g); nevertheless, fish do not produce polyphenols (Table 2). The value obtained with this measurement is related to non-polyphenolic compounds, such as fish amino acids, which reduce the Folin–Ciocâlteu reagent. The addition of 2% and 4% amaranth seed flour did not modify the total polyphenol content in the minced tilapia meat gels, whereas the addition of 6% and 10% amaranth seed flour significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the free polyphenol content by 1.66- and 1.24-fold, respectively (Table 2). On the other hand, the addition of 2%, 4%, 6%, and 10% amaranth sprout flour did not modify the total free polyphenol content in minced tilapia meat gels (Table 2).
Interestingly, the minced tilapia meat gels with added 10% amaranth sprout flour showed the greatest content of free total flavonoids, which were increased by 1.64-fold as compared to the control sample (with added 0% amaranth), whereas the addition of 10% amaranth seed flour only increased the content of free flavonoids by 1.12-fold (Table 2), which is related to the higher content of free flavonoids in the sprout amaranth flour (Table S3).
In this study, amaranthine and isoamaranthine were identified only in amaranth sprout flour (Table S4). Minced tilapia meat gels with added 10% amaranth seed flour showed the highest content of dihydroxybenzoic acid and cinnamic acid; nevertheless, minced tilapia meat gels with added 10% amaranth sprout seed flour showed a greater variety of polyphenols, with a high content of bound ferulic acid (Table 3). Moreover, minced tilapia meat gels were enriched with amaranthine when 4–10% amaranth sprout flour was added, whereas isoamaranthine was not detected (Table 3) due to its low concentration levels in amaranth sprout flour (Table S4).
2.3. Evaluation of the Total Antioxidant Capacity of Minced Tilapia Meat Gels Enriched with Amaranth Seed or Sprout Flours
The increased content of polyphenols and betalains in sprouted amaranth can be associated with an increased antioxidant capacity as observed in Table S5 with Q-ABTS and Q-DPPH radical-scavenging assays (12.3-fold as compared to amaranth seed flour). A minor effect was observed on Q-DPPH antioxidant capacity assay (1.6-fold; Table S5). Regarding the addition of amaranth seed and sprout flours to minced tilapia meat gels, Q-ABTS and Q-DPPH antioxidant capacity was increased (Table 4, 1.7–3.9 and 4.4–5.9 fold as compared to the control, respectively), obtaining a higher antioxidant value when amaranth sprout flour was added.
2.4. Evaluation of the Techno-Functional Properties of Minced Tilapia Meat Gels Enriched with Amaranth Seed or Sprout Flours
The addition of 2–10% amaranth seed flour significantly (p < 0.05) increased the hardness and cohesiveness of minced tilapia meat gels, whereas no difference was found in springiness (Table 5). Regarding amaranth sprout flour, no clear trend was found, since the addition of 2% increased the hardness of minced tilapia meat gels without affecting their springiness and cohesiveness, whereas the addition of 6% increased the cohesiveness without affecting the other texture parameters.
On the other hand, color was significantly changed by the addition of amaranth seed or sprout flours (ΔE > 3; Table 6). The L* value (lightness or darkness) and whiteness decreased with the addition of both amaranth seed and sprout flours at all concentration levels; nevertheless, all samples showed L* values that indicated the presence of light (51–100). The a* value (redness or greenness) was significantly (p < 0.05) increased with the addition of >6% amaranth seed flour but with >2% amaranth sprout flours due to its redness. Regarding b* value (yellowness or blueness), this parameter was significantly increased with 10% amaranth seed flour and >2% amaranth sprout flour.
3. Discussion
In this study, amaranth sprouting decreased protein, carbohydrate, and fat content and increased dietary fiber content, leading to the development of minced tilapia meat gels rich in protein and dietary fiber and poor in lipid content. It has been reported that sprouting promotes protein hydrolysis due to an overexpression of endopeptidases. Nevertheless, controversial results have been reported regarding the effect of sprouting on the protein content of cereals [13]. Regarding carbohydrates, germination promotes the synthesis of α-amylase, β-amylase, and α-glucosidase enzymes, which degrade starch in simpler carbohydrates, leading to a decreased starch content in sprouted cereals as compared to the grains, thus increasing their digestibility [13].
Chauhan et al. [14] reported that germination slightly decreased amaranth’s carbohydrate content (1.03-fold) and slightly increased its dietary fiber content (1.36-fold). Similar results were reported by Perales-Sánchez et al. [12], who reported that sprouting decreased the already low-fat content of amaranth grains, which is related to an increased lipase and lipoxygenase activity during cereal germination [13].
Regarding the bioactive composition, Popoola [15] recently demonstrated that the extractable polyphenol content of Amaranthus viridis seeds increased after germination, which is related to an antioxidant defense mechanism against the increased production of reactive oxygen species generated after quiescent seeds initiate water imbibition. Popoola [15] reported ferulic acid as the major polyphenol in amaranth seed and sprout. Conversely, this hydroxycinnamic acid was not identified in amaranth seed flour in this study, but it was identified as both free and bound polyphenol in amaranth sprout flour. It is worth mentioning that, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that reports the bound polyphenol composition of germinated amaranth. On the other hand, betalains were only identified in amaranth sprout flour. Accordingly, Causin et al. [16] reported that betalains are synthesized during seed germination and seedling emergence in quinoa as part of its defense mechanisms.
The addition of amaranth seed and sprout flours did not proportionally increase the total polyphenol content in minced tilapia meat gels; nevertheless, this is related to the decreased content of fish amino acids when amaranth flours were added, since amino acids also react with Folin–Ciocâlteu reagent. Therefore, this UV/Vis spectrophotometric method is unreliable for assessing the polyphenolic composition of fish derived products since the UPLC–QToF-MS analysis demonstrated the enrichment with several polyphenols and betalains, which increased the antioxidant capacity of minced tilapia meat gels. Interestingly, amaranth sprout flour provided a higher concentration and variety of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic antioxidant compounds than amaranth seed flour.
Similar results were reported with the addition of other ADF sources to fish products. For instance, the addition of onion peel powder (1%, 2%, and 3%) increased the antioxidant capacity of fish sausages even at a very low concentration (1%) [17], whereas grape pomace dietary fiber (2%, 3%, and 4%) increased the antioxidant capacity of anchovy mince [10].
Lastly, regarding the techno-functional properties of minced tilapia meat gels, amaranth seeds and sprouts slightly affected the texture parameters, which may be related to its low lipid and high carbohydrate and protein content, since these latter macronutrients exert gelling effects, improving the stability and development of the protein network [4,18]. Similar results were reported by several authors, who added pseudo-cereals such as amaranth or quinoa flours (1.5–3% to different protein sources such as goat meat nuggets [19], beef burgers [20], and pork liver pâté [21], where only slight changes were observed on the TPA parameters.
Minced tilapia meat gels with added amaranth seed flour showed higher hardness values than the control samples and those with added amaranth sprout flour. It is noteworthy that hardness could be related to the interaction between amaranth and tilapia myofibrillar proteins which are partially unfolded during the heat-induced gelation process, exposing the sulfhydryl groups and internal nonpolar regions that interact to form aggregated structural proteins that further develop into a tridimensional protein matrix [22]. Nevertheless, the total protein content of both amaranth seed and sprout flours was similar; therefore, the higher content of dietary fiber of the amaranth sprout flour could negatively affect the formation of the tridimensional protein matrix, leading to a weaker network. Accordingly, García-Filleria and Tironi [23] reported that the addition of 1% and 2% amaranth protein isolate increased hardness in hake muscle, leading to the development of a fish restructured product with good texture attributes, whereas the addition carrageenan, konjac, and tragacanth as hydrocolloids rich in dietary fiber led to a lower hardness in fish ham and beef sausages [24,25].
On the other hand, the irregular trends observed in the TPA profile of minced tilapia meat gels with added amaranth flours could be associated with the polygonal shape of the starch granules of amaranth, as well as the release of amylose during the thermal process, which contributes to the formation of a protein–starch three-dimensional network. Nevertheless, starch swelling leads to a weaker network system, negatively affecting textural and rheological properties [26]. Lastly, regarding color parameters, similar results were reported by Felisberto et al. [27], who indicated that the addition of dietary fiber sources decreased luminosity of meat emulsions and by Verma et al. [19], who reported an increased redness in goat meat nuggets with added 1.5–3% amaranth flour.
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Amaranth Seed and Sprout Flours
Amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) seeds were purchased from a local market in Querétaro, México. Seeds were previously disinfected with 0.1% v/w sodium hypochlorite (1:1.5 w/v) for 30 min at room temperature. For the germination process, seeds were soaked in water (1:1.5 w/v) for 1 h at room temperature (24–28 °C). Then, seeds were drained and washed with water. Hydrated seeds were placed in trays extended on a filter paper and covered. Germination conditions were set at 25 °C for 72 h in darkness. The filter paper was watered daily. Finally, sprouts were sun-dried for 24 h [28]. The germination process was carried out in triplicate. Amaranth seeds and sprouts were ground in a mill, and flours were stored at room temperature in darkness until analysis.
4.2. Minced Tilapia Meat Gels Enriched with Amaranth Seed or Sprout Flours
Fresh tilapia fillets (meat) were purchased in a local market in Querétaro, México. Tilapia fillets were minced and mixed with different concentrations of amaranth seed or sprout flours (0%, 2%, 4%, 8%, and 10% w/w) and 0.5% w/w sodium chloride to solubilize proteins. Then, the homogenized samples were stuffed into stainless-steel tubes and immersed in a water bath at 40 °C for 30 min, followed by a second immersion in a water bath at 90 °C for 20 min, and then cooled in iced water (4 °C) for 30 min. The minced tilapia meat gels were removed from the stainless-steel tubes and stored at 4 °C until analysis [29]. The control sample corresponded to the minced tilapia meat gels with added 0% amaranth seeds or sprouts. The concentrations of amaranth flours used in these studies were selected according to previous studies who added from up to 12% several dietary fiber sources [6,7,10]; nevertheless, we selected a maximum of 10% (w/w) since higher concentrations led to the formation of a fragile restructured product. Three independent batches of each treatment were prepared, and three samples were analyzed per batch. Representative photography of each treatment is included in Figure S1 (Supplementary Material).
4.3. Nutritional Composition
The proximate analysis was determined following the official methods of analysis of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists (AOAC): crude protein (method 920.87), crude fat (method 920.85), crude fiber (method 962.09), total ash (method 923.03), and moisture (method 925.10) [30]. The carbohydrate content was calculated with the following equation: . This analysis was performed in three independent experiments with three technical repetitions.
4.4. Polyphenols and Betalains Composition
For the polyphenol characterization, samples (0.5 g) were extracted with 20 mL of methanol/water (50:50 v/v) adjusted at pH 2 with hydrochloric acid (37% v/v) for 1 h at room temperature with constant stirring. Then, samples were centrifuged (1500× g for 10 min), and the supernatants were recovered. Residues were re-extracted with 20 mL of acetone/water (70:30 v/v) and centrifuged as previously described. Both supernatants were mixed and were considered the extractable polyphenol (EPP) fraction which was used for the determination of free polyphenols and flavonoids. On the other hand, both residues were mixed, dried (45 °C for 24 h), and considered the non-extractable polyphenol (NEPP) fraction, which was used for the determination of bound polyphenols [31]. This analysis was performed in three independent experiments with three technical repetitions.
For the betalain characterization, samples (0.5 g) were extracted with 5 mL of water for 2.5 h at room temperature with constant stirring. Then, samples were centrifuged (5000× g for 10 min at 4 °C), and the supernatants were recovered for the determination of betacyanins, betaxanthins, and betalamic acid [32]. This analysis was performed in three independent experiments with three technical repetitions.
4.4.1. Free Polyphenols Content
Free polyphenols were determined in the EPP fraction. Samples (40 μL) were mixed with distilled water (10 μL), 1 N Folin–Ciocâlteu reagent (25 μL), and 20% sodium carbonate (125 μL) and were incubated for 30 min in darkness. Then, absorbances were measured at 765 nm. Results were expressed as μg of gallic acid equivalents/100 g fw [33].
4.4.2. Free Flavonoids Content
Free flavonoids were determined in the EPP fraction. Samples (230 μL) were mixed 1 mg/mL of 2-aminoethyldiphenyl borate methanolic solution (20 μL). Then, absorbances were measured at 404 nm. Results were expressed as μg of rutin equivalents/100 g fw [34].
4.4.3. Bound Polyphenols Content
Bound polyphenols were determined using alkaline hydrolysis in the NEPP fraction. Samples (0.3–0.5 g) were incubated with distilled water (12 mL) and 10 M sodium hydroxide (5 mL) for 16 h with constant stirring. Then, pH was adjusted to 2.0–3.0 with 6 M hydrochloric acid (37% v/v). Samples were centrifuged (2000× g for 10 min) and supernatants were recovered. Then, the residue was washed with distilled water (5 mL) and centrifuged as previously described. Both supernatants were mixed, and polyphenols were measured as previously described in Section 4.4. Results were expressed as mg of gallic acid equivalents/100 g fw [35].
4.4.4. Betalain Content
Betalain pigments were determined in the betalain extract (Section 4.4). Samples (20 μL) were diluted with distilled water (180 μL). Then, absorbances were measured at 538, 480, and 430 nm for the estimation of betacyanin, betaxanthin, and betalamic acid content, respectively [25]. Betalain content was estimated using the following equation: concentration = (Abs × MW × DF)/(ϵ × L), where Abs is the absorbance, MW is the molecular weight of betacyanins (727 g/mol), betaxanthins (309 g/mol), or betalamic acid (212 g/mol), DF is the dilution factor, μ is the molar extinction coefficient of betacyanins (56,600 1/M·cm), betaxanthins (48,000 1/M·cm), or betalamic acid (24,000 1/M·cm), and L is the length.
4.4.5. UPLC–QToF MSE Profile
An aliquot (1 mL) of the EPP, NEPP, and betalain fractions was evaporated to dryness at 35 °C under vacuum (Speedvac, Savant, Thermo Fisher Scientific, MA, USA), resuspended in 200 μL of methanol, and filtered with PVDF membrane syringe filters (0.45 μm, 13 mm). Then, samples were injected into a BEH Acquity C18 column (2.1 × 100 mm, 1.7 μm) at 35 °C in an ultraperformance liquid chromatograph (UPLC) coupled to a diode array detector (DAD) and a quadrupole/time-of-flight mass spectrometer (QToF MSE) with an electrospray ionization (ESI) interphase (Vion, Waters Co, MA, USA).
The mobile phase consisted of (A) water/formic acid 99.9:0.1 (v/v) and (B) acetonitrile/formic acid 99.9:0.1 (v/v) at 500 μL/min. The following gradient was used: initial conditions at 0% B, 0–15% B from 0 to 2.5 min, 15–21% B from 2.5 to 10 min, 21–90% B from 10 to 12 min, and 90–95% B from 12 to 13 min. Finally, conditions were returned to the initial 0% B from 13 to 15 min, which were maintained from 15 to 17 min to re-equilibrate the chromatographic column. Mass spectra were acquired in a mass range of 100–1200 Da in negative (ESI−) and positive (ESI+) ionization mode. MS conditions were set as follows: source temperature, 120 °C; desolvation gas (N2) temperature, 450 °C; desolvation gas flow; 800 L/h; cone gas flow, 50 L/h; capillary voltage, 2.0 kV (ESI−) and 3.5 kV (ESI+); cone voltage, 40 eV; low collision energy, 6 V; high collision energy, 15–45 V. Lock mass correction was carried out with leucine–enkephalin (50 pg/mL) at 10 μL/min every 3 min [36].
Data were acquired and processed in UNIFI software (Waters Co.). Peak identification was carried out by analysis of their exact mass (mass error < 5 ppm), isotope distribution, fragmentation pattern, and UV/Vis spectra. Calibration curves were constructed with commercial standards by triplicate, obtaining the regression coefficient, slope, and intercept for the quantification of the bioactive compounds. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were quantified as three and 10 times the standard deviation of the intercept/slope, respectively (Table S1). Representative high- and low-collision-energy mass spectra are included in Figures S2–S4.
4.5. Antioxidant Capacity
For the QUENCHER-ABTS (Q-ABTS) assay, samples (10 mg) were mixed with 10 mL of an ABTS aqueous solution previously adjusted to an absorbance of 0.700 ± 0.002 at a wavelength of 734 nm. Samples were incubated for 30 min in darkness, and absorbances were measured at 734 nm. For the Q-DPPH assay, samples (10 mg) were mixed with 10 mL of a 150 mM DPPH methanolic solution previously adjusted to an absorbance of 0.700 ± 0.002 at a wavelength of 515 nm. Samples were incubated for 15 min in darkness and absorbances were measured at 515 nm. The percentage inhibition was plotted against time and the area under the curve was calculated. Results were expressed as μmol of Trolox equivalents/100 g fw [37].
4.6. Techno-Functional Properties
4.6.1. Texture Profile Analysis (TPA)
Samples were compressed to 50% of their initial height (50 N load cell connected to the crosshead) at a compression rate of 50 mm/min using a 50 mm aluminum probe (P/50) (TA-XT plus Texture analyzer, Texture Technologies Co, Scarsdale, NY, USA). Hardness (peak force during the first compression cycle expressed in N), cohesiveness (area under the curve of the second compression cycle/area under the curve of the first compression cycle expressed as dimensionless quantity), and springiness (distance sample recovers after the first compression cycle expressed as mm) were recorded [30]. This analysis was performed in six independent experiments with three technical repetitions.
4.6.2. Color Parameters
The spectral reflectance was determined using a HunterLab Mini Scan (MS/S-4000S, Hunter Associated Laboratory Inc., Reston, VA, USA) calibrated against white and black tiles. The CIE L, a, and b system was used to determine the color parameter values, and hue angle, chroma, and whiteness were calculated. This analysis was performed in six independent experiments with three technical repetitions.
4.7. Statistical Analysis
Results are shown as mean values ± standard deviation. Data normality and variance distribution were assessed with Kolmogorov–Smirnov’s and Levene’s tests. Then, data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by the comparison of means by Tukey’s test (p < 0.05) using the JMP software (v14.0).
5. Conclusions
The results obtained in this study demonstrate that amaranth seeds and sprouts can be used to improve the nutritional and nutraceutical quality of tilapia restructured products without greatly affecting their techno-functional properties; however, color alteration must be considered in the development of a final food product. The elaboration of these fish meat gels with added antioxidant dietary fiber can be used for the development of hams, sausages, patties, and other processed fish products with a lower or null use of gelling additives. Further studies must be carried out to develop fish products using amaranth-enriched minced tilapia gels and to evaluate their sensory attributes and consumer’s preference. Moreover, a complete characterization of the final food product must be undertaken to guarantee its safety for consumers.
Supplementary Materials
The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/molecules28010117/s1: Figure S1. Representative photography of control minced tilapia meat gel (1A and 1B), minced tilapia meat gels with added 2%, 4%, 6%, and 10% amaranth seed flours (2A, 3A, 4A, and 5A, respectively), and minced tilapia meat gels with added 2%, 4%, 6%, and 10% amaranth sprout flours (2B, 3B, 4B, and 5B); Figure S2. High-resolution MSE spectra at high (superior) and low (inferior) collision energy of the major free polyphenols identified in amaranth seeds and sprouts: kaempferol rutinoside (A), dihydroxybenzoic acid hexoside (B), vanillic acid (C), and cinnamic acid (D); Figure S3. High-resolution MSE spectra at high (superior) and low (inferior) collision energy of ferulic acid, the major bound polyphenol identified in amaranth seeds and sprouts; Figure S5. High-resolution MSE spectra at high (superior) and low (inferior) collision energy of betanidin β-glucuronosylglucoside (amaranthine), the major betalain identified in amaranth seeds and sprouts; Table S1. Validation parameters of the UPLC–ESI-QTOF MSE method; Table S2. Nutritional composition of amaranth seed and sprout flours; Table S3. Free and bound polyphenol and betalain content of amaranth seed and sprout flours; Table S4. Free and bound polyphenol and betalain profile of amaranth seed and sprout flours; Table S5. Total antioxidant capacity of amaranth seed and sprout flours.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, I.F.P.-R. and M.A.M.-M.; formal analysis, I.F.P.-R., A.M.S.-G., and G.L.-E.; investigation, A.M.S.-G., G.L.-E., and M.A.M.-M.; project administration, I.F.P.-R. and M.A.M.-M.; funding acquisition, M.A.M.-M.; resources, I.F.P.-R. and M.A.M.-M.; supervision, I.F.P.-R. and M.A.M.-M.; visualization, I.F.P.-R. and M.A.M.-M.; writing—original draft, I.F.P.-R.; writing—review and editing, A.M.S.-G., G.L.-E., and M.A.M.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research study was funded by the ‘Convocatoria de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica 2020’ of Tecnológico Nacional de México, grant number 7586.20PD.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Chemistry Faculty of the Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro for providing facilities for the UPLC–QTOF analysis (CONACyT project number: INFR-15-255182).
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
- Jim, F.; Garamumhango, P.; Musara, C. Comparative analysis of nutritional value of Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus), Nile tilapia, meat from three different ecosystems. J. Food Qual. 2017, 2017, 6714347. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Desta, D.; Zello, G.A.; Alemayehu, F.; Estfanos, T.; Zatti, K.; Drew, M. Proximate analysis of Nile Tilapia, (Oreochromis niloticus), fish fillet harvested from farmers Pond and Lake Hawassa, Southern Ethiopia. Int. J. Res. Dev. Technol. 2019, 11, 94–99. [Google Scholar]
- Das, D.; Mir, N.A.; Chandla, N.K.; Singh, S. Combined effect of pH treatment and the extraction pH on the physicochemical, functional and rheological characteristics of amaranth (Amaranthus hypochondriacus) seed protein isolates. Food Chem. 2021, 353, 129466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Das, A.K.; Nanda, P.K.; Madane, P.; Biswas, S.; Das, A.; Zhang, W.; Lorenzo, J.M. A comprehensive review on antioxidant dietary fibre enriched meat-based functional foods. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 99, 323–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wan Rosli, W.I.; Solihah, M.A.; Aishah, M.; Nik Fakurudin, N.A.; Mohsin, S.S.J. Colour, textural properties, cooking characteristics and fibre content of chicken patty added with oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju). Int. Food Res. J. 2011, 18, 621–627. [Google Scholar]
- Malav, O.P.; Sharma, B.D.; Kumar, R.R.; Talukder, S.; Ahmed, S.R.; Irshad, A. Antioxidant potential and quality characteristics of functional mutton patties incorporated with cabbage powder. Nutr. Food Sci. 2015, 45, 542–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mantihal, S.; Azmi Hamsah, A.; Mohd Zaini, H.; Mantanjun, P.; Pindi, W. Quality characteristics of functional chicken patties incorporated with round cabbage powder. J. Food Process. Preserv. 2021, 45, e16099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verma, A.K.; Rajkumar, V.; Banerjee, R.; Biswas, S.; Das, A.K. Guava (Psidium guajava L.) powder as an antioxidant dietary fibre in sheep meat nuggets. Asian-Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2013, 26, 886–895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Madane, P.; Das, A.K.; Pateiro, M.; Nanda, P.K.; Bandyopadhyay, S.; Jagtap, P.; Barba, F.J.; Shewalkar, A.; Maity, B.; Lorenzo, J.M. Drumstick (Moringa oleifera) flower as an antioxidant dietary fibre in chicken meat nuggets. Foods 2019, 8, 307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Solari-Godiño, A.; Pérez-Jiménez, J.; Saura-Calixto, F.; Borderías, A.J.; Moreno, H.M. Anchovy mince (Engraulis ringens) enriched with polyphenol-rich grape pomace dietary fibre: In vitro polyphenols bioaccessibility, antioxidant and physico-chemical properties. Food Res. Int. 2017, 102, 639–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sarker, U.; Islam, M.T.; Rabbani, M.G.; Oba, S. Genotypic diversity in vegetable amaranth for antioxidant, nutrient and agronomic traits. Indian J. Genet. Plant Breed. 2017, 77, 173–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Perales-Sánchez, J.X.; Reyes-Moreno, C.; Gómez-Favela, M.A.; Milán-Carrillo, J.; Cuevas-Rodríguez, E.O.; Valdez-Ortiz, A.; Gutiérrez-Dorado, R. Increasing the antioxidant activity, total phenolic and flavonoid contents by optimizing the germination conditions of amaranth seeds. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 2014, 69, 196–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lemmens, E.; Moroni, A.V.; Pagand, J.; Heirbaut, P.; Ritala, A.; Karlen, Y.; Lê, K.-A.; Van de Broeck, H.C.; Brouns, F.J.P.H.; De Brier, N.; et al. Impact of cereal seed sprouting on its nutritional and technological properties: A critical review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2019, 18, 305–328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Chauhan, A.; Saxena, D.C.; Singh, S. Total dietary fibre and antioxidant activity of gluten free cookies made from raw and germinated amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) flour. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 63, 939–945. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Popoola, O.O. Phenolic compounds composition and in vitro antioxidant activity of Nigerian Amaranthus viridis seed as affected by autoclaving and germination. Measur. Foods 2022, 6, 100028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Causin, H.F.; Bordón, D.A.; Burrieza, H. Salinity tolerance mechanisms during germination and early seedling growth in Chenopodium quinoa wild. genotypes with different sensitivity to saline stress. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2020, 172, 103995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bedrníček, J.; Kadlec, J.; Laknerová, I.; Mráz, J.; Samková, E.; Petrášková, E.; Hasoňová, L.; Vácha, F.; Kron, V.; Smetana, P. Onion peel powder as an antioxidant-rich material for sausages prepared from mechanically separated fish meat. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 974. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cortez-Trejo, M.C.; Loarca-Piña, G.; Figueroa-Cárdenas, J.D.; Manríquez, J.; Mendoza, S. Gel properties of acid-induced gels obtained at room temperature and based on common bean proteins and xanthan gum. Food Hydrocoll. 2022, 132, 107873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Verma, A.K.; Rajkumar, V.; Kumar, S. Effect of amaranth and quinoa seed flour on rheological and physicochemical properties of goat meat nuggets. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 56, 5027–5035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Özer, C.O.; Secen, S.M. Effects of quinoa flour on lipid and protein oxidation in raw and cooked beef burger during long term frozen storage. Food Sci. Technol. 2018, 38, 221–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pellegrini, M.; Lucas-Gonzalez, R.; Sayas-Barberá, E.; Fernández-López, J.; Pérez-Álvarez, J.A.; Viuda-Martos, M. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) paste as partial fat replacer in the development of reduced fat cooked meat product type pâté: Effect on quality and safety. CyTa J. Food 2018, 16, 1079–1088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López, D.N.; Galante, M.; Raimundo, G.; Spelzini, D.; Boeris, V. Functional properties of amaranth, quinoa and chia proteins and the biological activities of their hydrolyzates. Food Res. Int. 2019, 116, 419–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- García Fillería, S.F.; Tironi, V.A. Application of amaranth protein isolate and hydrolysate on a reduced salt fish restructured product: Antioxidant properties, textural and microbiological effects. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 50, 1452–1460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alves, M.C.; Paula, M.M.D.O.; Costa, C.G.C.D.; Sales, L.A.; Lago, A.M.T.; Pimenta, C.J.; Gomes, M.E.D.S. Restructured fish cooked ham: Effects of the use of carrageenan and transglutaminase on textural properties. J. Aquat. Food Prod. Technol. 2021, 30, 451–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Atashkar, M.; Hojjatoleslamy, M.; Sedaghat Boroujeni, L. The influence of fat substitution with κ-carrageenan, konjac, and tragacanth on the textural properties of low-fat sausage. Food Sci. Nutr. 2018, 6, 1015–1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Condés, M.C.; Añón, M.C.; Dufresne, A.; Mauri, A.N. Composite and nanocomposite films based on amaranth biopolymers. Food Hydrocoll. 2018, 74, 159–167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Felisberto, M.H.F.; Galvão, M.T.E.L.; Picone, C.S.F.; Cunha, R.L.; Pollonio, M.A.R. Effect of prebiotic ingredients on the rheological properties and microstructure of reduced-sodium and low-fat meat emulsions. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 60, 148–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Paredes-Lopez, O.; Mora-Escobedo, R. Germination of amaranth seeds: Effects on nutrient composition and color. J. Food Sci. 1989, 54, 761–762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martínez-Maldonado, M.A.; Velazquez, G.; de León, J.A.R.; Borderías, A.J.; Moreno, H.M. Effect of high pressure processing on heat-induced gelling capacity of blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) meat. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2020, 59, 102253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- AOAC International. Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC International; AOAC International: Gaithersburg, MD, USA, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Solari-Godiño, A.; Lindo-Rojas, I.; Pandia-Estrada, S. Determination of phenolic compounds and evaluation of antioxidant capacity of two grapes residues (Vitis vinifera) of varieties dried: Quebranta (red) and Torontel (white). Cogent Food Agric. 2020, 3, 1361599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumar, S.S.; Manoj, P.; Shetty, N.P.; Prakash, M.; Giridhar, P. Characterization of major betalain pigments-gomphrenin, betanin and isobetanin from Basella rubra L. fruit and evaluation of efficacy as a natural colourant in product (ice cream) development. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2015, 52, 4994–5002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Singleton, V.L.; Orthofer, R.; Lamuela-Raventós, R.M. Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of folin-ciocalteu reagent. Method Enzymol. 1999, 299, 152–178. [Google Scholar]
- Oomah, B.D.; Cardador-Martínez, A.; Loarca-Piña, G. Phenolics and antioxidative activities in common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L). J. Sci. Food Agric. 2005, 85, 935–942. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quatrin, A.; Pauletto, R.; Maurer, L.H.; Minuzzi, N.; Nichelle, S.M.; Carvalho, J.F.C.; Maróstica, M.R.; Rodriguez, E.; Bochi, V.C.; Emanuelli, T. Characterization and quantification of tannins, flavonols, anthocyanins and matrix-bound polyphenols from jaboticaba fruit peel: A comparison between Myrciaria trunciflora and M. jaboticaba. J. Food Compost Anal. 2019, 78, 59–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reynoso-Camacho, R.; Rodríguez-Villanueva, L.D.; Sotelo-González, A.M.; Ramos-Gómez, M.; Pérez-Ramírez, I.F. Citrus decoction by-product represents a rich source of carotenoid, phytosterol, extractable and non-extractable polyphenols. Food Chem. 2021, 350, 129239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Del Pino-García, R.; García-Lomillo, J.; Rivero-Pérez, M.D.; González-SanJosé, M.L.; Muñiz, P. Adaptation and validation of QUick, easy, new, CHEap, and reproducible (QUENCHER) antioxidant capacity assays in model products obtained from residual wine pomace. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2015, 63, 6922–6931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Table 1.
Nutritional composition of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
Table 1.
Nutritional composition of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
| Minced Tilapia Meat Gel | Nutritional Composition 1 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Protein | Lipids | Carbohydrates 2 | Crude Fiber | Ash | Moisture | |
| Control (0%) | 15.15 ± 0.15a | 1.44 ± 0.01a | 1.96 ± 0.15e | 1.35 ± 0.02e | 3.41 ± 0.14a | 78.03 ± 0.16a |
| +2% amaranth seed flour | 14.99 ± 0.16a | 1.00 ± 0.02b | 4.14 ± 0.04d | 1.69 ± 0.01e | 2.91 ± 0.06b | 76.95 ± 0.04ab |
| +4% amaranth seed flour | 14.96 ± 0.14a | 1.19 ± 0.05b | 5.59 ± 0.55c | 2.04 ± 0.01d | 2.93 ± 0.04b | 74.89 ± 0.73b |
| +6% amaranth seed flour | 14.91 ± 0.21a | 0.66 ± 0.02c | 7.49 ± 0.23b | 2.15 ± 0.06d | 3.37 ± 0.01a | 74.02 ± 0.07b |
| +10% amaranth seed flour | 15.27 ± 0.22a | 0.67 ± 0.00c | 9.61 ± 0.55a | 2.36 ± 0.06cd | 3.18 ± 0.09a | 71.29 ± 0.24c |
| +2% amaranth sprout flour | 15.21 ± 0.11a | 0.79 ± 0.02c | 4.19 ± 0.09d | 2.69 ± 0.01c | 2.82 ± 0.02b | 76.99 ± 0.01ab |
| +4% amaranth sprout flour | 15.20 ± 0.23a | 1.05 ± 0.04b | 6.14 ± 1.05c | 3.31 ± 0.01b | 2.71 ± 0.04b | 74.90 ± 0.82b |
| +6% amaranth sprout flour | 14.72 ± 0.04a | 1.01 ± 0.05b | 7.62 ± 0.05b | 3.88 ± 0.04ab | 2.91 ± 0.05b | 72.68 ± 0.11c |
| +10% amaranth sprout flour | 15.67 ± 0.27a | 1.11 ± 0.03b | 8.90 ± 0.57a | 4.34 ± 0.01a | 3.56 ± 0.16a | 71.41 ± 0.28c |
Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different letters indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences between samples. Data are expressed as 1 % fw. 2 Calculated by difference. Fw: fresh weight.
Table 2.
Free and bound polyphenol and betalain content of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
Table 2.
Free and bound polyphenol and betalain content of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
| Minced Tilapia Meat Gel | Polyphenols | Betalains | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Free Polyphenols 1 | Free Flavonoids 2 | Free Proantocyanidins 3 | Bound Polyphenols 1 | Betacyanins 4 | Betaxanthins 5 | Betalamic Acid | |
| Control (0%) | 150.08 ± 7.51a | 51.77 ± 0.80c | 3.30 ± 0.28c | 261.64 ± 13.77a | 0.13 ± 0.01f | 0.04 ± 3 × 10−3e | 0.08 ± 0.00f |
| +2% amaranth seed flour | 146.78 ± 7.67a | 59.58 ± 4.18bc | 5.87 ± 0.40b | 276.02 ± 12.56a | 0.10 ± 0.00f | 0.06 ± 2 × 10−3e | 0.12 ± 0.01f |
| +4% amaranth seed flour | 137.62 ± 4.93a | 61.69 ± 5.08b | 5.90 ± 0.42b | 307.12 ± 25.04a | 0.24 ± 0.01e | 0.16 ± 9 × 10−3d | 0.22 ± 0.01e |
| +6% amaranth seed flour | 120.50 ± 4.96b | 59.30 ± 1.17bc | 5.59 ± 0.43b | 306.85 ± 27.46a | 0.26 ± 0.02e | 0.21 ± 1 × 10−2c | 0.23 ± 0.01e |
| +10% amaranth seed flour | 121.17 ± 4.02b | 57.85 ± 3.38bc | 5.66 ± 0.03b | 308.65 ± 20.12a | 0.35 ± 0.01cd | 0.22 ± 4 × 10−3c | 0.37 ± 0.01d |
| +2% amaranth sprout flour | 150.85 ± 4.68a | 66.25 ± 3.37b | 5.29 ± 0.59b | 284.71 ± 24.25a | 0.31 ± 0.01d | 0.19 ± 3 × 10−3c | 0.36 ± 0.01d |
| +4% amaranth sprout flour | 138.75 ± 1.24a | 65.52 ± 3.11b | 7.26 ± 0.28a | 302.09 ± 21.12a | 0.40 ± 0.02bc | 0.25 ± 2 × 10−3b | 0.41 ± 0.00c |
| +6% amaranth sprout flour | 137.88 ± 6.35a | 64.09 ± 3.70b | 7.17 ± 0.07a | 311.52 ± 5.63a | 0.42 ± 0.02b | 0.28 ± 2 × 10−2b | 0.46 ± 0.03b |
| +10% amaranth sprout flour | 139.02 ± 3.84a | 84.89 ± 3.04a | 7.94 ± 0.18a | 317.10 ± 8.60a | 0.63 ± 0.04a | 0.41 ± 9 × 10−3a | 0.82 ± 0.00a |
Data are shown as the mean ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different letters indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences between samples. Data are expressed as 1 mg of gallic acid equivalents/100 g fw, 2 mg of rutine equivalents/100 g fw, 3 μg of betacyanin equivalents/100 g fw, 4 μg of betaxanthin equivalents/100 g fw, 5 μg of betalamic acid/100 g fw. Fw: fresh weight.
Table 3.
Free and bound polyphenol and betalain profile of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
Table 3.
Free and bound polyphenol and betalain profile of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
| Compound | Minced Tilapia Meat Gels | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control | +Amaranth Seed Flour | +Amaranth Sprout Flour | |||||||
| 0% | 2% | 4% | 6% | 10% | 2% | 4% | 6% | 10% | |
| Free polyphenols | |||||||||
| Flavonols | |||||||||
| Quercetin rutinoside (rutin) * | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.50 ± 0.02b | ND | ND | 0.34 ± 0.00a | 0.49 ± 0.02b |
| Kaempferol rutinoside | ND | ND | ND | 0.37 ± 0.02a | 0.64 ± 0.01c | ND | 0.36 ± 0.01a | 0.52 ± 0.03b | 0.82 ± 0.06d |
| Flavones | |||||||||
| Apigenin dihexoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| Isoflavones | |||||||||
| Daidzin hexoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| Glycitin hexoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.61 ± 0.05a | 0.80 ± 0.02b |
| Genistin hexoside | ND | ND | ND | 0.37 ± 0.03a | 0.60 ± 0.16bc | ND | 0.35 ± 0.01a | 0.48 ± 0.02b | 0.81 ± 0.15c |
| Hydroxybenzoic acids | |||||||||
| Hydroxybenzoic acid hexoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | 1.09 ± 0.25a | ND | ND | 1.12 ± 0.02a | 1.52 ± 0.21a |
| Hydroxybenzoic acid * | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| Dihydroxybenzoic acid hexoside | ND | 0.84 ± 0.03a | 1.21 ± 0.12b | 3.40 ± 0.06e | 6.75 ± 0.65f | 1.07 ± 0.00b | 1.62 ± 0.04c | 1.97 ± 0.10c | 2.90 ± 0.11d |
| Vanillic acid * | ND | ND | ND | 1.07 ± 0.08a | 2.11 ± 0.20b | ND | ND | 1.12 ± 9.12a | 2.13 ± 0.17b |
| Hydroxycinnamic acids | |||||||||
| Cinammic acid * | ND | ND | 1.45 ± 0.04c | 2.18 ± 0.19d | 3.89 ± 0.24e | ND | ND | 0.29 ± 0.03a | 0.99 ± 0.10b |
| Ferulic acid hexoside | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.67 ± 0.05 |
| Caffeic acid * | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.31 ± 0.02a | 1.01 ± 0.07b | 1.45 ± 0.11b |
| Feruloylquinic acid | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
| Ferulic acid* | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.09 ± 0.00a | 0.34 ± 0.02b | 0.71 ± 0.04c |
| Bound polyphenols | |||||||||
| Hydroxycinnamic acids | |||||||||
| Ferulic acid * | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 10.33 ± 1.07a | 13.11 ± 1.00a | 15.54 ± 0.91b | 18.47 ± 1.32c |
| Betalains | |||||||||
| Betacyanins | |||||||||
| Amaranthine | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.23 ± 0.01a | 0.89 ± 0.04b | 1.34 ± 0.08c |
| Isoamaranthine | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
Data are shown as the mean ± standard deviation of three replicates. Results are expressed as μg/100 g fw. Different letters indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences between samples. * Identification confirmed with commercial standards. Fw: fresh weight.
Table 4.
Total antioxidant capacity of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
Table 4.
Total antioxidant capacity of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
| Antioxidant Capacity | Minced Tilapia Meat Gels | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control | +Amaranth Seed Flour | +Amaranth Sprout Flour | |||||||
| 0% | 2% | 4% | 6% | 10% | 2% | 4% | 6% | 10% | |
| Q-ABTS assay | 20.93 ± 1.61e | 40.67 ± 0.34d | 39.15 ± 2.40d | 44.78 ± 2.70cd | 36.09 ± 2.34d | 57.95 ± 1.60bc | 71.92 ± 4.03ab | 74.36 ± 6.13a | 80.79 ± 6.13a |
| Q-DPPH assay | 16.86 ± 0.06d | 74.65 ± 3.18c | 83.04 ± 1.16bc | 80.40 ± 7.56bc | 85.17 ± 0.31b | 94.57 ± 2.33a | 97.93 ± 0.63a | 98.66 ± 0.25a | 97.04 ± 0.06a |
Data are shown as the mean ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different letters indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences between samples. Data are expressed as μmol Trolox equivalents/100 g fw. Q: quencher; ABTS: 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzo-thiazoline-6-sulfonic acid); DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; fw: fresh weight; ND: not detected.
Table 5.
Texture profile analysis parameters of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
Table 5.
Texture profile analysis parameters of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
| Minced Tilapia Meat Gel | Texture Profile Analysis Parameters | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Hardness 1 | Springiness | Cohesiveness 2 | |
| Control (0%) | 21.30 ± 2.44 a | 0.92 ± 0.03 a | 0.38 ± 0.01 b |
| +2% amaranth seed flour | 28.25 ± 3.34 bc | 0.93 ± 0.04 a | 0.46 ± 0.05 c |
| +4% amaranth seed flour | 32.95 ± 3.71 d | 0.92 ± 0.03 a | 0.42 ± 0.01 c |
| +6% amaranth seed flour | 36.91 ± 3.61 d | 0.95 ± 0.04 a | 0.55 ± 0.01 d |
| +10% amaranth seed flour | 36.75 ± 3.70 d | 0.95 ± 0.03 a | 0.40 ± 0.02 c |
| +2% amaranth sprout flour | 26.55 ± 2.73 bc | 0.94 ± 0.01 a | 0.36 ± 0.01 b |
| +4% amaranth sprout flour | 22.58 ± 2.55 ab | 0.91 ± 0.01 a | 0.21 ± 0.06 a |
| +6% amaranth sprout flour | 21.57 ± 2.58 ab | 0.93 ± 0.01 a | 0.41 ± 0.02 c |
| +10% amaranth sprout flour | 24.62 ± 1.28 ab | 0.93 ± 0.02 a | 0.23 ± 0.03 a |
Data are shown as the mean ± standard deviation of six replicates. Different letters indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences between samples. Data are expressed as 1 N and 2 mm.
Table 6.
Color parameters of minced tilapia meat gels enriched with amaranth seed or sprout flours.
| Minced Tilapia Meat Gel | Color Parameters | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| L* | a* | b* | Chroma | Hue Angle | Whiteness | ΔE | |
| Control (0%) | 71.45 ± 1.32a | −0.66 ± 0.51f | 8.63 ± 0.89c | 8.67 ± 0.87c | 94.61 ± 3.48a | 71.13 ± 1.31a | --- |
| +2% amaranth seed flour | 68.16 ± 1.61ab | −0.16 ± 0.32e | 9.46 ± 0.58bc | 9.47 ± 0.58bc | 91.00 ± 2.00ab | 67.86 ± 1.59b | 3.54 ± 1.49c |
| +4% amaranth seed flour | 68.04 ± 0.65ab | −0.11 ± 0.31e | 9.81 ± 0.56bc | 9.82 ± 0.55bc | 90.72 ± 1.83b | 67.74 ± 0.64b | 3.71 ± 0.58c |
| +6% amaranth seed flour | 65.41 ± 0.82b | 0.17 ± 0.33d | 10.46 ± 0.92b | 10.47 ± 0.93b | 89.20 ± 1.66b | 65.11 ± 0.80bc | 6.45 ± 0.65b |
| +10% amaranth seed flour | 64.27 ± 0.87b | 0.76 ± 0.43c | 11.15 ± 1.04b | 11.18 ± 1.06b | 86.22 ± 1.79c | 63.95 ± 0.86c | 7.81 ± 0.89b |
| +2% amaranth sprout flour | 68.35 ± 1.24ab | 0.30 ± 0.39cd | 11.70 ± 0.70b | 11.71 ± 0.70b | 88.61 ± 1.89b | 67.98 ± 1.22b | 4.59 ± 0.97c |
| +4% amaranth sprout flour | 63.18 ± 2.70bc | 0.52 ± 0.20c | 12.99 ± 0.72b | 13.00 ± 0.72b | 87.69 ± 0.84bc | 62.82 ± 2.65c | 9.59 ± 2.09ab |
| +6% amaranth sprout flour | 63.36 ± 1.52bc | 1.76 ± 0.37b | 16.25 ± 0.84a | 16.34 ± 0.87a | 83.87 ± 1.05d | 62.87 ± 1.49c | 11.45 ± 1.13a |
| +10% amaranth sprout flour | 62.19 ± 0.59c | 2.12 ± 0.29a | 18.66 ± 0.81a | 18.78 ± 0.81a | 83.51 ± 0.85d | 61.64 ± 0.57c | 13.95 ± 0.72a |
Data are shown as the mean ± standard deviation of six replicates. Different letters indicate significant (p < 0.05) differences between samples.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
MDPI and ACS Style
Pérez-Ramírez, I.F.; Sotelo-González, A.M.; López-Echevarría, G.; Martínez-Maldonado, M.A. Amaranth Seeds and Sprouts as Functional Ingredients for the Development of Dietary Fiber, Betalains, and Polyphenol-Enriched Minced Tilapia Meat Gels. Molecules 2023, 28, 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010117
AMA Style
Pérez-Ramírez IF, Sotelo-González AM, López-Echevarría G, Martínez-Maldonado MA. Amaranth Seeds and Sprouts as Functional Ingredients for the Development of Dietary Fiber, Betalains, and Polyphenol-Enriched Minced Tilapia Meat Gels. Molecules. 2023; 28(1):117. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010117
Chicago/Turabian StylePérez-Ramírez, Iza F., Ana M. Sotelo-González, Gerardo López-Echevarría, and Miguel A. Martínez-Maldonado. 2023. "Amaranth Seeds and Sprouts as Functional Ingredients for the Development of Dietary Fiber, Betalains, and Polyphenol-Enriched Minced Tilapia Meat Gels" Molecules 28, no. 1: 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010117
APA StylePérez-Ramírez, I. F., Sotelo-González, A. M., López-Echevarría, G., & Martínez-Maldonado, M. A. (2023). Amaranth Seeds and Sprouts as Functional Ingredients for the Development of Dietary Fiber, Betalains, and Polyphenol-Enriched Minced Tilapia Meat Gels. Molecules, 28(1), 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28010117
