Next Article in Journal
Motility Plays an Important Role in the Lifetime of Mammalian Lipid Droplets
Next Article in Special Issue
JDP2, a Novel Molecular Key in Heart Failure and Atrial Fibrillation?
Previous Article in Journal
Granulocytes and Cells of Granulocyte Origin—The Relevant Players in Colorectal Cancer
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJMS
Volume 22
Issue 7
10.3390/ijms22073786
ijms-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Hemi- and Homozygous Loss-of-Function Mutations in DSG2 (Desmoglein-2) Cause Recessive Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy with an Early Onset

by
Andreas Brodehl
1,*,†,
Alexey Meshkov
2,†,
Roman Myasnikov
2,†,
Anna Kiseleva
2,*,†,
Olga Kulikova
2,
Bärbel Klauke
1,
Evgeniia Sotnikova
2,
Caroline Stanasiuk
1,
Mikhail Divashuk
2,
Greta Marie Pohl
1,
Maria Kudryavtseva
2,
Karin Klingel
3,
Brenda Gerull
4,
Anastasia Zharikova
2,
Jan Gummert
1,5,
Sergey Koretskiy
2,
Stephan Schubert
6,
Elena Mershina
7,
Anna Gärtner
1,
Polina Pilus
7,
Kai Thorsten Laser
6,
Valentin Sinitsyn
7,
Sergey Boytsov
8,
Oxana Drapkina
2,‡ and
Hendrik Milting
1,‡add Show full author list remove Hide full author list
1
Erich and Hanna Klessmann Institute, Heart and Diabetes Center NRW, University Hospital of the Ruhr–University Bochum, Georgstrasse 11, 32545 Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
2
National Medical Research Center for Therapy and Preventive Medicine, Petroverigsky per., 10, bld. 3, 101000 Moscow, Russia
3
Cardiopathology, Institute for Pathology and Neuropathology, University Hospital Tuebingen, Liebemeister-strasse 8, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
4
Comprehensive Heart Failure Center (CHFC) and Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Würzburg, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
5
Clinic for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Heart and Diabetes Center NRW, University Hospital of the Ruhr–University Bochum, Georgstrasse 11, 32545 Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
6
Center for Congenital Heart Defects, Heart and Diabetes Center NRW, University Hospital of the Ruhr–University Bochum, Georgstrasse 11, 32545 Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
7
Medical Research and Educational Center, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Lomonosovsky Prospect 27, Building 10, 119991 Moscow, Russia
8
National Medical Research Center for Cardiology, 3–ya Cherepkovskaya Street 15A, 121552 Moscow, Russia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
‡
These authors contributed as shared senior authors to this work.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(7), 3786; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073786
Submission received: 5 March 2021 / Revised: 29 March 2021 / Accepted: 31 March 2021 / Published: 6 April 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Basis and Molecular Mechanisms of Heart Rhythm Disorders)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
About 50% of patients with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) carry a pathogenic or likely pathogenic mutation in the desmosomal genes. However, there is a significant number of patients without positive familial anamnesis. Therefore, the molecular reasons for ACM in these patients are frequently unknown and a genetic contribution might be underestimated. Here, we used a next-generation sequencing (NGS) approach and in addition single nucleotide polymor-phism (SNP) arrays for the genetic analysis of two independent index patients without familial medical history. Of note, this genetic strategy revealed a homozygous splice site mutation (DSG2–c.378+1G>T) in the first patient and a nonsense mutation (DSG2–p.L772X) in combination with a large deletion in DSG2 in the second one. In conclusion, a recessive inheritance pattern is likely for both cases, which might contribute to the hidden medical history in both families. This is the first report about these novel loss-of-function mutations in DSG2 that have not been previously identi-fied. Therefore, we suggest performing deep genetic analyses using NGS in combination with SNP arrays also for ACM index patients without obvious familial medical history. In the future, this finding might has relevance for the genetic counseling of similar cases.

1. Introduction

Desmosomes are multiple protein complexes mediating the cell–cell adhesion of cardiomyocytes and epithelial cells [1]. They consist of proteins from three different protein families. The cadherins desmoglein-2 and desmocollin-2 (encoded by DSG2 and DSC2) are type I transmembrane glycoproteins [2,3,4] and mediate the calcium-dependent cell–cell adhesion between cardiomyocytes. Both proteins have extracellular domains consisting of four cadherin domains (EC1–4) and an anchor domain (EA) [5]. Heterophilic protein–protein interactions between the desmosomal cadherins are mediated in trans by a strand-swap mechanism of their first EC domains [2]. Two proteins from the Armadillo family, which are called plakophilin-2 (PKP2) and plakoglobin (JUP), bind to the cytoplasmic domains of the desmosomal cadherins [6]. The Armadillo domain formed by varying numbers of Armadillo repeats is characteristic for these proteins [7,8]. Plakophilin-2 and plakoglobin bind to desmoplakin (DSP), which is a member of the plakin family connecting the desmosomes to the cardiac intermediate filaments, which are mainly built by desmin (DES) [9,10]. Of note, mutations in the cardiac desmosomal genes and in addition in DES cause arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM, MIM, #609040) [11,12,13,14,15,16,17]. However, DES mutations beside ACM also cause other cardiomyopathies like dilated (DCM) [18], restrictive (RCM) [19,20], or left ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathy (LVNC) [21,22]. In rare cases, mutations in non-desmosomal genes have also been described for ACM [23,24,25]. ACM is clinically characterized by ventricular arrhythmia in combination with right or biventricular dilation [26]. Originally, the term arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) was used and clinical task force guidelines have been developed and modified for the specific clinical diagnosis of ARVC [27]. However, in the end-stage phase of ARVC the left ventricle is also frequently affected [28]. Even dominant left ventricular forms have been described [29], indicating an overlap between arrhythmogenic DCM and ARVC. Despite precise clinical definitions of ACM, this term is therefore more frequently used in the newer literature [30]. Progressive replacement of the myocardium against fibrotic and fatty tissue at the cellular and histological level is characteristic for ACM [31,32]. It is estimated that 5–10% of cases with ACM carry a pathogenic DSG2 mutation [33]. However, the majority of DSG2 variants are rare missense variants with unknown significance [3,34] (http://www.hgmd.cf.ac.uk/ac/index.php, accessed on 20 January 2021). For some of the known DSG2 missense mutations, cleavage defects of the pro-domain have been described [35]. In addition, a considerable number of heterozygous pathogenic loss-of-function mutations (LoF) like nonsense, insertions, deletions, or splice site mutations leading to frameshifts and premature termination codons (PTCs) were found in ACM patients [36,37,38].
Here, we describe two unrelated index patients (Figure 1) where we identified homo- or hemizygous DSG2 LoF mutations by next-generation sequencing (NGS) leading to ACM. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays revealed consanguinity in the first family and a large additional DSG2 deletion, spanning the region from intron 1 to 14 in the second index patient (DSG2–Ex2_Ex14del). Because no further family members were clinically affected, we suggest a recessive inheritance in both cases.

2. Results

2.1. Clinical Description of the Patients

2.1.1. Family A

The index patient (II-1, Figure 1A) belongs to a South Asian family without obvious familiar history of cardiomyopathies.
At the age of 12, he survived a syncope and received afterwards his clinical diagnosis of ARVC according to the revised task force criteria [27]. In detail, echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed normal left ventricular structure (left ventricular end-diastolic diameter, LVEDD = 43 mm) and function (fractional shortening, FS = 33%, end-diastolic volume 78 mL/m2, left ventricular ejection fraction LVEF = 69%) at this time. However, the right ventricle was dilated (parasternal long axis right ventricular outflow view, PLAX RVOT = 33 mm in the long axis view, FAC 31%, end-diastolic volume 138 mL/m2, EF 29% with additional segmental bulging, Figure 2A,B). Analysis of a right ventricular biopsy revealed slight endo-fibrotic elastosis with proliferating myofibroblasts (Figure 2C,D). In addition, a right axis deviation, primarily incomplete, later complete right bundle branch block, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia and ventricular extra beats were present (Figure 2E,F) in the ECG. Speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) revealed dyssynchrony of the septum and right ventricular wall (Figure 3 and Video S1). Therefore, the patient was supplied with an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD). Clinical follow-up using echocardiography resulted in an increasing dilatation of the right ventricle (RVEDD = 69 mm, 17 years) and decreasing right ventricular function (TAPSE = 14 mm) in combination with paradoxical septal motions and a dilated right atrium. Because of ventricular tachycardia, the patient received several ICD shocks. At the age of 22, an additional left ventricular systolic dysfunction (LVEF = 38%) without significant left ventricular dilation (LVEDD = 51 mm) was detected. Concentration of n-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) was slightly increased (952 pg/mL) at this time. No further family members developed any significant cardiac phenotype.

2.1.2. Family B

The index patient (II-2, Family B, Figure 1B) belongs to a Caucasian family without obvious familiar history of cardiomyopathies. At the age of 22, he was hospitalized with severe pain in his left thigh and acute arterial thrombosis was diagnosed. Afterwards, cardiac MRI and echocardiography were used to identify the possible cardiac reasons for acute thrombosis. These investigations revealed biventricular enlargement (LVEDD = 64 mm) and reduced systolic LV and RV function (LVEF = 37%, right ventricular ejection fraction RVEF = 23%, Figure 4A–F) and signs of the left-ventricular non-compaction morphology using criteria defined by Petersen and Grothoff et al. [39,40]. LVNC is mainly characterized by increased endomyocardial trabeculations. Diagnosis of ACM was based on the Padua criteria [41]. The patient fulfilled all major and minor criteria, excluding a family history. Holter monitoring ECG showed a sinus rhythm with frequent premature ventricular beats and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia (Figure 4J,K). Therefore, an ICD was implanted. Several follow-ups were held afterwards and revealed a progressive decrease of the left ventricular systolic function (LVEF = 21%) and enlarged end-diastole LV size (LVEDD = 65 mm). Due to progressive ARVC, he was consulted for heart transplantation. Cardiologists clinically examined all other family members (Figure 1B). Cardiac MRI revealed normal heart structure and function. Symptoms of ARVC were absent in I-1, I-2, II-1, and II-3 (Figure 1B). However, cardiac MRI of the proband’s mother (I-2, Family B) revealed left-ventricular non-compaction morphology according to criteria of Petersen et al. [39] (Figure 5B).

2.2. Genetic Analyses

Index patient II-1 of Family A (Figure 1A) developed a progressive ACM. Although no further family members were clinically affected, we performed a genetic analysis of the affected index patient using a broad NGS panel, covering 174 genes associated with cardiomyopathies or syndromes with cardiac involvement. Filtering using a MAF < 0.001 revealed six heterozygous missense variants and one homozygous mutation in the donor splice site of DSG2 exon 4 (DSG2–c.378+1G>T, Table 1, Figure 6A). Sanger sequencing was used for verification of DSG2–c.378+1G>T (Figure 6B). DSG2 is localized on chromosome 18 and encodes desmoglein-2. In theory, three different reasons might explain homozygosity of DSG2–c.378+1G>T.
  • Consanguinity of the parents
  • An additional large deletion in DSG2 localized on the second chromosome mimicking homozygosity DSG2–c.378+1G>T or
  • Uniparental isodisomy (UPD)
Since no genomic DNA of the parents or siblings was available, we used a SNP microarray for chromosomal analysis of II-1 (Family A, Figure 6C). A large putative deletion on chromosome 18 was excluded by this analysis (Figure 6D). However, we identified a loss of heterozygosity (LOH) on chromosome 18 (15,605 kbp, Figure 6D). In addition, we found seven further regions with LOHs localized on autosomes (LOH > 5000 kb, Figure 6C). The total size of the autosomal LOH regions is 4.39% (total autosome LOH = 121,988 kbp; covered autosome length 2,781,797 kbp), supporting consanguinity of the parents. This fits to a parental fourth-degree relationship like, e.g., first cousins once removed (theoretical Froh = 3.125%, [42]). Because of these findings it can be suggested that both parents are obligate carriers for DSG2–c.378+1G>T leading to homozygosity of this mutation in II-1 (Figure 1A).
In family B with Russian origin, only the index patient (II-2, Figure 1B) received an ACM diagnosis. Comparable to family A, we started the genetic analysis with an NGS approach for the index patient II-2, revealing eight rare variants with a MAF < 0.001 (Table 2). Interestingly, comparable to family A we found exclusively reads for a nonsense mutation DSG2-p.L772X, indicating homo- or hemizygosity (Figure 7A). This finding was verified by Sanger sequencing. In addition, we genotyped the unaffected parents (I-1 and I-2) and the two siblings (II-1 and II-3). Of note, beside the heterozygous DSG2-p.L772X mutation, the father carried a further heterozygous SNP (DSG2-p.R773K, MAF = 0.2604, https://gnomad.broadinstitute.org/variant/18-29122799-G-A?dataset=gnomad_r2_1 (accessed on 20 January 2021), Figure 7B). Surprisingly, the mother (I-2) was wild type for both variants excluding parental consanguinity (Figure 7C). The older brother II‑1 of the index patient did not carry the nonsense variant, but carried the SNP DSG2-p.R773K in a heterozygous status (Figure 7D). The dizygotic twin sister II‑3 presented the same SNP in a homozygous status (Figure 7F). Since all children carried either DSG2-p.L772X or -p.R773K, it can be concluded that the father (I-1) carried both DSG2 variants in a compound heterozygous status. To investigate the genetic reason for homozygosity of DSG2-p.L772X in II-2 and of DSG2-p.R773K in II-3, we performed a SNP microarray for the index patient II-2 and his parents (Supplementary Figure S1). These analyses revealed a large additional deletion mutation affecting nearly the complete DSG2 gene (Figure 7G–I) for the index patient (II-2) and his mother (I-2). In summary, we identified a hemizygous nonsense variant (DSG2-p.L772X) for the index patient and suggest therefore a recessive inheritance in Family B (Figure 1B) caused by paternal inheritance of DSG2-p.L772X and maternal inheritance of DSG2_Ex2-14del.

3. Discussion

In 2002, Eshkind et al. demonstrated that the global homozygous knock-out of Dsg2 in mice is embryonic lethal [43]. Therefore, different conditional knock-out, knock-in, and transgenic mouse models for Dsg2 leading to murine arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathies have been developed [44,45,46,47,48,49]. In spite of this, the first pathogenic DSG2 mutations associated with ACM in humans were found in 2006 [37,50]. Currently, more than 200 different DSG2 variants associated with ACM or DCM are listed in the Human Gene Mutation Database (HGMD, http://www.hgmd.cf.ac.uk/ (accessed on 20 January 2021), Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). The majority of them are rare missense variants with unknown significance and/or with unknown pathomechanism. However, small insertions, deletions, indels, and splicing mutations in DSG2 have been also described. Presumably, these LoF mutations in DSG2 might induce nonsense-mediated mRNA decay and in consequence lead to loss of the adhesive function of the desmosomes as suggested by Kant et al. using heart-specific Dsg2-deficient mice [46]. Interestingly, recessive homozygous or compound heterozygous DSG2 mutations are rare, indicating a dominant inheritance in most cases [51]. In this report, we describe two independent index patients with ACM carrying either a homozygous splice site mutation in DSG2 or a hemizygous nonsense mutation. Although we cannot completely exclude modifying effects of rare variants of unknown significance (VUS) like, e.g., PKP2-p.R811S in II-1, Family A (Table 1), it is unlikely that these VUS are primary causative based on their MAF. Mutations in PKP2 are common in ARVC [11]. However, most of them are truncating mutations leading to haploinsufficiency.
Homozygosity is caused in Family A by consanguinity and hemizygosity is caused in Family B by a large deletion on the second chromosome. In Family B the index patient received the nonsense mutation from the father and the large deletion from the mother. Interestingly, no further family members developed clinical symptoms of ACM. Therefore, for both presented cases it can be suggested that the ACM phenotype is caused by a recessive inheritance of DSG2 LoF mutations. Uniparental isodisomy, as we have recently described for the homozygous mutation DSC2-c.1913_1916delAGAA leading to the truncation and degradation of desmocollin-2 [52], can be excluded by SNP microarray analyses in both cases. Recently, some other homozygous DSC2 mutations associated with ACM were described, indicating a recessive inheritance in specific cases for this gene [53,54,55,56].
In general, for about 50% of ACM patients a pathogenic mutation in the desmosomal genes can be identified [33]. Rare de novo mutations in isolated index patients [57] and rare copy number variants [58,59] might explain some cases without obvious familial/genetic history. In addition, we show here two independent cases with recessive DSG2 mutations, which can contribute to a hidden family anamnesis. It is worth noting that in proband (II-2, Family B) and his mother (I‑2, Family B) a left ventricular non-compaction morphology was detected according to echocardiography and MRI analyses [39]. However, it does not meet the modern MRI criteria for non-compacted myocardium [40]. Currently, we cannot exclude that a mutation in DSG2 might modify this pathology. It is noteworthy that the disease in proband debuted with the development of acute arterial thrombosis, most likely cardio-embolic origin on the background of a non-compaction in the LV.
Despite the recessive type of inheritance in both families (A and B), we suggest to continue dynamic clinical investigations of heterozygous mutation carriers in the future as long as possible because we cannot exclude that a cardiac phenotype will occur at a later onset.

4. Materials and Methods

An NGS panel covering 174 cardiomyopathy-associated genes (TrueSight Cardio Panel, Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA, Appendix A) was used for sequencing of the index patient in Family A (II-1, Family A). A minor allele frequency (MAF) < 0.001 (The Genome Aggregation Database, gnomAD, 19 January 2021) was applied for filtering relevant variants. Sanger sequencing was used for verification of DSG2–c.378+1G>T (Macrogen, Amsterdam, Netherlands). A SNP array, CytoScan HD (Affimetrix, Santa Clara, CA, USA), was performed using the genomic DNA from II-1 (Family A) by Atlas Biolabs (Berlin, Germany). The overall average marker spacing of the CytoScan HD is 1148 base pairs (intragenic = 880 and intergenic = 1737). Chromosome Analysis Suite V4.2.0.80 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, USA) was used for analysis of SNP arrays. No DNA samples of further family members were available for genetic analyses in this family. For histology of the right ventricular biopsy from II-1, Family A, a hematoxylin and eosin staining (HE) and a trichrome staining (TC) was done using standard protocols [32].
An NGS exome sequencing analysis using Nextseq 550 (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA) was done for the index patient in Family B (II-2, Figure 2B). Libraries were prepared using the Truseq DNA Library Preparation Kit (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA) and the xGen Exome Research Panel (IDT, Integrated DNA Technologies, Coralville, IA, USA). Variants with MAF < 0.001 in 188 cardiomyopathy-associated genes (Appendix B) were analyzed. The verification of DSG2–p.L772X and DSG2–Ex2_Ex14del was done by Sanger sequencing on an Applied Biosystems 3500 DNA Analyzer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). All stages of sequencing were carried out according to the manufacturers’ protocols. CytoScan HD arrays (Affimetrix, Santa Clara, CA, USA) were used for I‑1, I-2, and II-1 (Family B) and were performed by Atlas Biolabs (Berlin, Germany). Analysis of SNP arrays was done using Chromosome Analysis Suite V4.2.0.80 (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, USA).

5. Conclusions

Our genetic analyses of two independent ACM index patients without obvious familial anamnesis revealed homo- or hemizygous LoF mutations in DSG2. Therefore, we suggest also for ACM patients without further affected family members a genetic counseling and analysis, because putative pathogenic mutations might be hidden by a recessive inheritance.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijms22073786/s1.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.B., A.M. and R.M.; methodology, A.B., A.M., K.T.L., and R.M.; validation, A.B., A.K., O.K., E.S., S.S., M.D. and M.K.; formal analysis, A.B., A.M., A.K., B.K., K.K., M.D., S.S., K.T.L., A.Z. and A.G.; investigation, A.B., K.K., A.M., R.M., A.K., O.K., C.S., E.S., M.D., J.G., K.T.L., S.K. and E.M.; resources, R.M., K.T.L., and O.K.; data curation, A.B., A.M., R.M., A.K., O.K., C.S., K.T.L., A.Z. and J.G.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B., A.M., R.M., A.K. and O.K.; writing—review and editing, C.S., G.M.P., A.G., K.K., B.G., J.G., S.B., O.D. and H.M.; visualization, A.B., A.K., O.K., E.S., M.D., E.M., P.P. and V.S.; supervision, S.B., O.D. and H.M.; project administration, A.B., A.M. and A.K.; funding acquisition, A.B., A.M., R.M., S.B., O.D. and H.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

A.B. and H.M. received funding by the Medical Faculty of the Ruhr-University Bochum (FoRUM- F937-18). In addition, H.M. was kindly supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, MI1146/2-2) and by the Erich and Hanna Klessmann Foundation (Gütersloh, Germany). A.M. acknowledges support by the State assignment No 121021100127-8.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Ruhr-University Bochum (Bad Oeynhausen, Germany, Reg. No. 2018-330) and the Ethics Committees in clinical cardiology of the National Research Center for Therapy and Preventive Medicine (a statement on ethics approval №06-21/17, 12 October 2017).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

All authors are grateful to the patients and their families for their continuous contributions and support of our research. The authors from National Medical Research Center for Therapy and Preventive Medicine would like to acknowledge the collective of the Biobank of the National Medical Research Center for Therapy and Preventive Medicine for their contribution to the research. The authors would like to thank the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD) and the groups that provided exome and genome variant data to this resource. A full list of contributing groups can be found at http://gnomad.broadinstitute.org/about (accessed on 20 January 2021).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Appendix A

ABCC9, ABCG5, ABCG8, ACTA1, ACTA2, ACTC1, ACTN2, AKAP9, ALMS1, ANK2, ANKRD1, APOA4, APOA5, APOB, APOC2, APOE, BAG3, BRAF, CACNA1C, CACNA2D1, CACNB2, CALM1, CALR3, CASQ2, CAV3, CBL, CBS, CETP, COL3A1, COL5A1, COL5A2, COX15, CREB3L3, CRELD1, CRYAB, CSRP3, CTF1, DES, DMD, DNAJC19, DOLK, DPP6, DSC2, DSG2, DSP, DTNA, EFEMP2, ELN, EMD, EYA4, FBN1, FBN2, FHL1, FHL2, FKRP, FKTN, FXN, GAA, GATAD1, GCKR, GJA5, GLA, GPD1L, GPIHBP1, HADHA, HCN4, HFE, HRAS, HSPB8, ILK, JAG1, JPH2, JUP, KCNA5, KCND3, KCNE1, KCNE2, KCNE3, KCNH2, KCNJ2, KCNJ5, KCNJ8, KCNQ1, KLF10, KRAS, LAMA2, LAMA4, LAMP2, LDB3, LDLR, LDLRAP1, LMF1, LMNA, LPL, LTBP2, MAP2K1, MAP2K2, MIB1, MURC, MYBPC3, MYH11, MYH6, MYH7, MYL2, MYL3, MYLK, MYLK2, MYO6, MYOZ2, MYPN, NEXN, NKX2-5, NODAL, NOTCH1, NPPA, NRAS, PCSK9, PDLIM3, PKP2, PLN, PRDM16, PRKAG2, PRKAR1A, PTPN11, RAF1, RANGRF, RBM20, RYR1, RYR2, SALL4, SCN1B, SCN2B, SCN3B, SCN4B, SCN5A, SCO2, SDHA, SEPN1, SGCB, SGCD, SGCG, SHOC2, SLC25A4, SLC2A10, SMAD3, SMAD4, SNTA1, SOS1, SREBF2, TAZ, TBX20, TBX3, TBX5, TCAP, TGFB2, TGFB3, TGFBR1, TGFBR2, TMEM43, TMPO, TNNC1, TNNI3, TNNT2, TPM1, TRDN, TRIM63, TRPM4, TTN, TTR, TXNRD2, VCL, ZBTB17, ZHX3, ZIC3.

Appendix B

Genes associated with different cardiomyopathies: AARS2, ABCC9, ACAD9, ACADVL, ACTA1, ACTA2, AGK, AGL, AGPAT2, ALMS1, ANK2, ATP5E, ATPAF2, BRAF, BSCL2, CALR3, CAV3, CBL, COA5, COQ2, COX15, COX6B1, CRELD1, CRYAB, CTF1, CTNNA3, DES, DLD, DNM1L, DOLK, DSC2, DSG2, ELN, EMD, EYA4, FAH, FHL1, FHL2, FHOD3, FKRP, FKTN, FLNA, FOXD4, FOXRED1, FXN, GAA, GATA4, GATA6, GATAD1, GFM1, GJA1, GJA5, GLB1, GNPTAB, GUSB, HFE, HRAS, ILK, JAG1, JPH2, JUP, KCNJ2, KCNJ8, KLF10, KRAS, LAMA2, LAMA4, LIAS, MAP2K1, MAP2K2, MRPL3, MRPS22, MTO1, MURC, MYH11, MYLK2, MYOM1, MYOT, MYOZ2, NEBL, NEXN, NRAS, OBSL1, PDHA1, PDLIM3, PHKA1, PITX2, PMM2, PRKAG2, PSEN1, PSEN2, RAF1, RBM20, SCO2, SGCA, SGCB, SGCD, SHOC2, SLC22A5, SLC25A3, SLC25A4, SMAD3, SOS1, SPHA, SPRED1, SURF1, SYNE1, SYNE2, TBX1, TBX20, TBX5, TCAP, TGFB3, TMEM43, TMEM70, TMPO, TRIM63, TSFM, TTR, TXNRD2, VCL, XK.
Genes associated with LVNC: ACTC1, ACTN2, AMPD1, ANKRD1, ARFGEF2, BAG3, CASQ2, CNBP, CSRP3, DMD, DMPK, DNAJC19, DSP, DTNA, EYA1, FBN2, FLNC, GBE1, GLA, HADHB, HBB, HCCS, HCN4, HMGCL, ITGA7, KCNH2, KCNQ1, LAMP2, LDB3, LMNA, MIB1, MLYCD, MMACHC, MYBPC3, MYH6, MYH7, MYH7B, MYL2, MYL3, MYPN, NKX2-5, NNT, NOTCH1, PKP2, PLEC, PLEKHM2, PLN, PMP22, PRDM16, PTPN11, RYR1, RYR2, SCN5A, SDHA, SDHD, SIX1, SIX5, TAZ, TFAP2A, TNNC1, TNNI3, TNNT2, TNNT3, TPM1, TTN, YWHAE.

References

  1. Patel, D.M.; Green, K.J. Desmosomes in the heart: A review of clinical and mechanistic analyses. Cell Commun. Adhes. 2014, 21, 109–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Harrison, O.J.; Brasch, J.; Lasso, G.; Katsamba, P.S.; Ahlsen, G.; Honig, B.; Shapiro, L. Structural basis of adhesive binding by desmocollins and desmogleins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2016, 113, 7160–7165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  3. Debus, J.D.; Milting, H.; Brodehl, A.; Kassner, A.; Anselmetti, D.; Gummert, J.; Gaertner-Rommel, A. In vitro analysis of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy associated desmoglein-2 (DSG2) mutations reveals diverse glycosylation patterns. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 2019, 129, 303–313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Brodehl, A.; Stanasiuk, C.; Anselmetti, D.; Gummert, J.; Milting, H. Incorporation of desmocollin-2 into the plasma membrane requires N-glycosylation at multiple sites. FEBS Open Bio 2019, 9, 996–1007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Kolegraff, K.; Nava, P.; Laur, O.; Parkos, C.A.; Nusrat, A. Characterization of full-length and proteolytic cleavage fragments of desmoglein-2 in native human colon and colonic epithelial cell lines. Cell Adhes. Migr. 2011, 5, 306–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Chen, X.; Bonne, S.; Hatzfeld, M.; van Roy, F.; Green, K.J. Protein binding and functional characterization of plakophilin 2. Evidence for its diverse roles in desmosomes and beta-catenin signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277, 10512–10522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Choi, H.J.; Gross, J.C.; Pokutta, S.; Weis, W.I. Interactions of plakoglobin and beta-catenin with desmosomal cadherins: Basis of selective exclusion of alpha-and beta-catenin from desmosomes. J. Biol. Chem. 2009, 284, 31776–31788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Kirchner, F.; Schuetz, A.; Boldt, L.H.; Martens, K.; Dittmar, G.; Haverkamp, W.; Thierfelder, L.; Heinemann, U.; Gerull, B. Molecular insights into arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy caused by plakophilin-2 missense mutations. Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet. 2012, 5, 400–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Favre, B.; Begre, N.; Bouameur, J.E.; Lingasamy, P.; Conover, G.M.; Fontao, L.; Borradori, L. Desmoplakin interacts with the coil 1 of different types of intermediate filament proteins and displays high affinity for assembled intermediate filaments. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0205038. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Kartenbeck, J.; Franke, W.W.; Moser, J.G.; Stoffels, U. Specific attachment of desmin filaments to desmosomal plaques in cardiac myocytes. EMBO J. 1983, 2, 735–742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Gerull, B.; Heuser, A.; Wichter, T.; Paul, M.; Basson, C.T.; McDermott, D.A.; Lerman, B.B.; Markowitz, S.M.; Ellinor, P.T.; MacRae, C.A.; et al. Mutations in the desmosomal protein plakophilin-2 are common in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Nat. Genet. 2004, 36, 1162–1164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Heuser, A.; Plovie, E.R.; Ellinor, P.T.; Grossmann, K.S.; Shin, J.T.; Wichter, T.; Basson, C.T.; Lerman, B.B.; Sasse-Klaassen, S.; Thierfelder, L.; et al. Mutant desmocollin-2 causes arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2006, 79, 1081–1088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  13. Klauke, B.; Kossmann, S.; Gaertner, A.; Brand, K.; Stork, I.; Brodehl, A.; Dieding, M.; Walhorn, V.; Anselmetti, D.; Gerdes, D.; et al. De novo desmin-mutation N116S is associated with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2010, 19, 4595–4607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  14. McKoy, G.; Protonotarios, N.; Crosby, A.; Tsatsopoulou, A.; Anastasakis, A.; Coonar, A.; Norman, M.; Baboonian, C.; Jeffery, S.; McKenna, W.J. Identification of a deletion in plakoglobin in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy with palmoplantar keratoderma and woolly hair (Naxos disease). Lancet 2000, 355, 2119–2124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Syrris, P.; Ward, D.; Asimaki, A.; Evans, A.; Sen-Chowdhry, S.; Hughes, S.E.; McKenna, W.J. Desmoglein-2 mutations in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: A genotype-phenotype characterization of familial disease. Eur. Heart J. 2007, 28, 581–588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Norman, M.; Simpson, M.; Mogensen, J.; Shaw, A.; Hughes, S.; Syrris, P.; Sen-Chowdhry, S.; Rowland, E.; Crosby, A.; McKenna, W.J. Novel mutation in desmoplakin causes arrhythmogenic left ventricular cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2005, 112, 636–642. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Protonotarios, A.; Brodehl, A.; Asimaki, A.; Jager, J.; Quinn, E.; Stanasiuk, C.; Ratnavadivel, S.; Futema, M.; Akhtar, M.M.; Gossios, T.D.; et al. The novel desmin variant p.Leu115Ile is associated with a unique form of biventricular Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy. Can. J. Cardiol. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Taylor, M.R.; Slavov, D.; Ku, L.; Di Lenarda, A.; Sinagra, G.; Carniel, E.; Haubold, K.; Boucek, M.M.; Ferguson, D.; Graw, S.L.; et al. Prevalence of desmin mutations in dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2007, 115, 1244–1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  19. Brodehl, A.; Pour Hakimi, S.A.; Stanasiuk, C.; Ratnavadivel, S.; Hendig, D.; Gaertner, A.; Gerull, B.; Gummert, J.; Paluszkiewicz, L.; Milting, H. Restrictive Cardiomyopathy is Caused by a Novel Homozygous Desmin (DES) Mutation p.Y122H Leading to a Severe Filament Assembly Defect. Genes 2019, 10, 918. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  20. Herrmann, H.; Cabet, E.; Chevalier, N.R.; Moosmann, J.; Schultheis, D.; Haas, J.; Schowalter, M.; Berwanger, C.; Weyerer, V.; Agaimy, A.; et al. Dual Functional States of R406W-Desmin Assembly Complexes Cause Cardiomyopathy With Severe Intercalated Disc Derangement in Humans and in Knock-In Mice. Circulation 2020, 142, 2155–2171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Kulikova, O.; Brodehl, A.; Kiseleva, A.; Myasnikov, R.; Meshkov, A.; Stanasiuk, C.; Gartner, A.; Divashuk, M.; Sotnikova, E.; Koretskiy, S.; et al. The Desmin (DES) Mutation p.A337P Is Associated with Left-Ventricular Non-Compaction Cardiomyopathy. Genes 2021, 12, 121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Marakhonov, A.V.; Brodehl, A.; Myasnikov, R.P.; Sparber, P.A.; Kiseleva, A.V.; Kulikova, O.V.; Meshkov, A.N.; Zharikova, A.A.; Koretsky, S.N.; Kharlap, M.S.; et al. Noncompaction cardiomyopathy is caused by a novel in-frame desmin (DES) deletion mutation within the 1A coiled-coil rod segment leading to a severe filament assembly defect. Hum. Mutat. 2019, 40, 734–741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Merner, N.D.; Hodgkinson, K.A.; Haywood, A.F.; Connors, S.; French, V.M.; Drenckhahn, J.D.; Kupprion, C.; Ramadanova, K.; Thierfelder, L.; McKenna, W.; et al. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy type 5 is a fully penetrant, lethal arrhythmic disorder caused by a missense mutation in the TMEM43 gene. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2008, 82, 809–821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Brodehl, A.; Rezazadeh, S.; Williams, T.; Munsie, N.M.; Liedtke, D.; Oh, T.; Ferrier, R.; Shen, Y.; Jones, S.J.M.; Stiegler, A.L.; et al. Mutations in ILK, encoding integrin-linked kinase, are associated with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Transl. Res. 2019, 208, 15–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Abdelfatah, N.; Chen, R.; Duff, H.J.; Seifer, C.M.; Buffo, I.; Huculak, C.; Clarke, S.; Clegg, R.; Jassal, D.S.; Gordon, P.M.K.; et al. Characterization of a Unique Form of Arrhythmic Cardiomyopathy Caused by Recessive Mutation in LEMD2. JACC Basic Transl. Sci. 2019, 4, 204–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Marcus, F.I.; Fontaine, G. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy: A review. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 1995, 18, 1298–1314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Marcus, F.I.; McKenna, W.J.; Sherrill, D.; Basso, C.; Bauce, B.; Bluemke, D.A.; Calkins, H.; Corrado, D.; Cox, M.G.; Daubert, J.P.; et al. Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia: Proposed modification of the Task Force Criteria. Eur. Heart J. 2010, 31, 806–814. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  28. Sen-Chowdhry, S.; Syrris, P.; Ward, D.; Asimaki, A.; Sevdalis, E.; McKenna, W.J. Clinical and genetic characterization of families with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy provides novel insights into patterns of disease expression. Circulation 2007, 115, 1710–1720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Bermudez-Jimenez, F.J.; Carriel, V.; Brodehl, A.; Alaminos, M.; Campos, A.; Schirmer, I.; Milting, H.; Abril, B.A.; Alvarez, M.; Lopez-Fernandez, S.; et al. Novel Desmin Mutation p.Glu401Asp Impairs Filament Formation, Disrupts Cell Membrane Integrity, and Causes Severe Arrhythmogenic Left Ventricular Cardiomyopathy/Dysplasia. Circulation 2018, 137, 1595–1610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Protonotarios, A.; Elliott, P.M. Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy: A Disease or Merely a Phenotype? Eur. Cardiol. 2020, 15, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Burke, A.P.; Farb, A.; Tashko, G.; Virmani, R. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy and fatty replacement of the right ventricular myocardium: Are they different diseases? Circulation 1998, 97, 1571–1580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Brodehl, A.; Belke, D.D.; Garnett, L.; Martens, K.; Abdelfatah, N.; Rodriguez, M.; Diao, C.; Chen, Y.X.; Gordon, P.M.; Nygren, A.; et al. Transgenic mice overexpressing desmocollin-2 (DSC2) develop cardiomyopathy associated with myocardial inflammation and fibrotic remodeling. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0174019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Gerull, B.; Klaassen, S.; Brodehl, A. The genetic landscape of cardiomyopathies. In Genetic Causes of Cardiac Disease; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2019; pp. 45–91. [Google Scholar]
  34. Wada, Y.; Ohno, S.; Aiba, T.; Horie, M. Unique genetic background and outcome of non-Caucasian Japanese probands with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Mol. Genet. Genom. Med. 2017, 5, 639–651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Gaertner, A.; Klauke, B.; Stork, I.; Niehaus, K.; Niemann, G.; Gummert, J.; Milting, H. In vitro functional analyses of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy-associated desmoglein-2-missense variations. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e47097. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Pereira Fernandes, M.; Azevedo, O.; Pereira, V.; Calvo, L.; Lourenco, A. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy with left ventricular involvement: A novel splice site mutation in the DSG2 gene. Cardiology 2015, 130, 159–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Pilichou, K.; Nava, A.; Basso, C.; Beffagna, G.; Bauce, B.; Lorenzon, A.; Frigo, G.; Vettori, A.; Valente, M.; Towbin, J.; et al. Mutations in desmoglein-2 gene are associated with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2006, 113, 1171–1179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Gehmlich, K.; Syrris, P.; Reimann, M.; Asimaki, A.; Ehler, E.; Evans, A.; Quarta, G.; Pantazis, A.; Saffitz, J.E.; McKenna, W.J. Molecular changes in the heart of a severe case of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy caused by a desmoglein-2 null allele. Cardiovasc. Pathol. 2012, 21, 275–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Petersen, S.E.; Selvanayagam, J.B.; Wiesmann, F.; Robson, M.D.; Francis, J.M.; Anderson, R.H.; Watkins, H.; Neubauer, S. Left ventricular non-compaction: Insights from cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005, 46, 101–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Grothoff, M.; Pachowsky, M.; Hoffmann, J.; Posch, M.; Klaassen, S.; Lehmkuhl, L.; Gutberlet, M. Value of cardiovascular MR in diagnosing left ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathy and in discriminating between other cardiomyopathies. Eur. Radiol. 2012, 22, 2699–2709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Corrado, D.; Perazzolo, M.M.; Zorzi, A.; Beffagna, G.; Cipriani, A.; Lazzari, M.; Migliore, F.; Pilichou, K.; Rampazzo, A.; Rigato, I.; et al. Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy: The Padua criteria. Int. J. Cardiol. 2020, 319, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Sund, K.L.; Rehder, C.W. Detection and reporting of homozygosity associated with consanguinity in the clinical laboratory. Hum. Hered. 2014, 77, 217–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Eshkind, L.; Tian, Q.; Schmidt, A.; Franke, W.W.; Windoffer, R.; Leube, R.E. Loss of desmoglein 2 suggests essential functions for early embryonic development and proliferation of embryonal stem cells. Eur. J. Cell. Biol. 2002, 81, 592–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Krusche, C.A.; Holthofer, B.; Hofe, V.; van de Sandt, A.M.; Eshkind, L.; Bockamp, E.; Merx, M.W.; Kant, S.; Windoffer, R.; Leube, R.E. Desmoglein 2 mutant mice develop cardiac fibrosis and dilation. Basic Res. Cardiol. 2011, 106, 617–633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  45. Pilichou, K.; Remme, C.A.; Basso, C.; Campian, M.E.; Rizzo, S.; Barnett, P.; Scicluna, B.P.; Bauce, B.; van den Hoff, M.J.; de Bakker, J.M.; et al. Myocyte necrosis underlies progressive myocardial dystrophy in mouse dsg2-related arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. J. Exp. Med. 2009, 206, 1787–1802. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  46. Kant, S.; Krull, P.; Eisner, S.; Leube, R.E.; Krusche, C.A. Histological and ultrastructural abnormalities in murine desmoglein 2-mutant hearts. Cell Tissue Res. 2012, 348, 249–259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Chelko, S.P.; Asimaki, A.; Andersen, P.; Bedja, D.; Amat-Alarcon, N.; DeMazumder, D.; Jasti, R.; MacRae, C.A.; Leber, R.; Kleber, A.G.; et al. Central role for GSK3beta in the pathogenesis of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. JCI Insight 2016, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  48. Calore, M.; Lorenzon, A.; Vitiello, L.; Poloni, G.; Khan, M.A.F.; Beffagna, G.; Dazzo, E.; Sacchetto, C.; Polishchuk, R.; Sabatelli, P.; et al. A novel murine model for arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy points to a pathogenic role of Wnt signalling and miRNA dysregulation. Cardiovasc. Res. 2019, 115, 739–751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Gerull, B.; Brodehl, A. Genetic Animal Models for Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy. Front. Physiol. 2020, 11, 624. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Awad, M.M.; Dalal, D.; Cho, E.; Amat-Alarcon, N.; James, C.; Tichnell, C.; Tucker, A.; Russell, S.D.; Bluemke, D.A.; Dietz, H.C.; et al. DSG2 mutations contribute to arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2006, 79, 136–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  51. Gehmlich, K.; Asimaki, A.; Cahill, T.J.; Ehler, E.; Syrris, P.; Zachara, E.; Re, F.; Avella, A.; Monserrat, L.; Saffitz, J.E.; et al. Novel missense mutations in exon 15 of desmoglein-2: Role of the intracellular cadherin segment in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy? Heart Rhythm 2010, 7, 1446–1453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Brodehl, A.; Weiss, J.; Debus, J.D.; Stanasiuk, C.; Klauke, B.; Deutsch, M.A.; Fox, H.; Bax, J.; Ebbinghaus, H.; Gartner, A.; et al. A homozygous DSC2 deletion associated with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy is caused by uniparental isodisomy. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 2020, 141, 17–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Gerull, B.; Kirchner, F.; Chong, J.X.; Tagoe, J.; Chandrasekharan, K.; Strohm, O.; Waggoner, D.; Ober, C.; Duff, H.J. Homozygous founder mutation in desmocollin-2 (DSC2) causes arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy in the Hutterite population. Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet. 2013, 6, 327–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  54. Al-Sabeq, B.; Krahn, A.D.; Conacher, S.; Klein, G.J.; Laksman, Z. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy with recessive inheritance related to a new homozygous desmocollin-2 mutation. Can. J. Cardiol. 2014, 30, e691–e693. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Simpson, M.A.; Mansour, S.; Ahnood, D.; Kalidas, K.; Patton, M.A.; McKenna, W.J.; Behr, E.R.; Crosby, A.H. Homozygous mutation of desmocollin-2 in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy with mild palmoplantar keratoderma and woolly hair. Cardiology 2009, 113, 28–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Lorenzon, A.; Pilichou, K.; Rigato, I.; Vazza, G.; De Bortoli, M.; Calore, M.; Occhi, G.; Carturan, E.; Lazzarini, E.; Cason, M.; et al. Homozygous Desmocollin-2 Mutations and Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 2015, 116, 1245–1251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. van Lint, F.H.M.; Murray, B.; Tichnell, C.; Zwart, R.; Amat, N.; Lekanne Deprez, R.H.; Dittmann, S.; Stallmeyer, B.; Calkins, H.; van der Smagt, J.J.; et al. Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy-Associated Desmosomal Variants Are Rarely De Novo. Circ. Genom. Precis. Med. 2019, 12, e002467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  58. Li Mura, I.E.; Bauce, B.; Nava, A.; Fanciulli, M.; Vazza, G.; Mazzotti, E.; Rigato, I.; De Bortoli, M.; Beffagna, G.; Lorenzon, A.; et al. Identification of a PKP2 gene deletion in a family with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 2013, 21, 1226–1231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Pilichou, K.; Lazzarini, E.; Rigato, I.; Celeghin, R.; De Bortoli, M.; Perazzolo Marra, M.; Cason, M.; Jongbloed, J.; Calore, M.; Rizzo, S.; et al. Large Genomic Rearrangements of Desmosomal Genes in Italian Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy Patients. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2017, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ijms 22 03786 g001 550
Figure 1. Pedigrees of the described families. (A) Family A has a South Asian origin. The male index patient (II-1) received his diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) at the age of 12. (B) Family B has a Russian origin. Circles represent females, squares males. Black-filled symbols indicate a cardiac phenotype and white symbols indicate healthy family members. +/− indicates heterozygous, +/+ homozygous, and +/0 hemizygous status. Index patients are marked with an arrow. Obligate carriers are shown with a black dot in the pedigree symbol.
Figure 1. Pedigrees of the described families. (A) Family A has a South Asian origin. The male index patient (II-1) received his diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) at the age of 12. (B) Family B has a Russian origin. Circles represent females, squares males. Black-filled symbols indicate a cardiac phenotype and white symbols indicate healthy family members. +/− indicates heterozygous, +/+ homozygous, and +/0 hemizygous status. Index patients are marked with an arrow. Obligate carriers are shown with a black dot in the pedigree symbol.
Ijms 22 03786 g001
Ijms 22 03786 g002 550
Figure 2. Clinical data of II-I, Family A. (A–B) Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a dilated right ventricle with reduced global function and segmental bulging. Hematoxylin and eosin (C) and trichrome staining (D) of a right-ventricular biopsy revealed subendocardial fibrosis and degeneration of cardiomyocytes. Scale bars represent 50 µm. (E–F) Right axis deviation, at the age of 12 years still incomplete, later complete right bundle branch block, inverted T-waves in the right precordial leads and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia were present in the 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG).
Figure 2. Clinical data of II-I, Family A. (A–B) Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed a dilated right ventricle with reduced global function and segmental bulging. Hematoxylin and eosin (C) and trichrome staining (D) of a right-ventricular biopsy revealed subendocardial fibrosis and degeneration of cardiomyocytes. Scale bars represent 50 µm. (E–F) Right axis deviation, at the age of 12 years still incomplete, later complete right bundle branch block, inverted T-waves in the right precordial leads and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia were present in the 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG).
Ijms 22 03786 g002
Ijms 22 03786 g003 550
Figure 3. Speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) demonstrated dyssynchrony of the septal and right ventricular free-wall segments (see also Video S1, Supplementary Data).
Figure 3. Speckle tracking echocardiography (STE) demonstrated dyssynchrony of the septal and right ventricular free-wall segments (see also Video S1, Supplementary Data).
Ijms 22 03786 g003
Ijms 22 03786 g004 550
Figure 4. Clinical data of Family B. (A–I) Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of index patient (II-2, Family B). Asterisk indicates thinning and aneurysmal protrusion of right ventricular wall (A–C). Arrows indicate ischemic changes in left ventricle (D,F). Dotted arrows indicate thrombosis in the right ventricle (B,E). Ellipse shows fibrosis of the right ventricle (F). Triangle demonstrates LV non-compaction (G–I). Rhombus demonstrates RV non-compaction (G,I). (J) Epsilon waves were present in the 12-lead ECG. (K) Tachycardia was present in the Holter monitoring-ECG.
Figure 4. Clinical data of Family B. (A–I) Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of index patient (II-2, Family B). Asterisk indicates thinning and aneurysmal protrusion of right ventricular wall (A–C). Arrows indicate ischemic changes in left ventricle (D,F). Dotted arrows indicate thrombosis in the right ventricle (B,E). Ellipse shows fibrosis of the right ventricle (F). Triangle demonstrates LV non-compaction (G–I). Rhombus demonstrates RV non-compaction (G,I). (J) Epsilon waves were present in the 12-lead ECG. (K) Tachycardia was present in the Holter monitoring-ECG.
Ijms 22 03786 g004
Ijms 22 03786 g005 550
Figure 5. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the I-1 (A), I-2 (B,D–F), and II -1 (C) of Family B. Asterisk indicates non-compaction layer.
Figure 5. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the I-1 (A), I-2 (B,D–F), and II -1 (C) of Family B. Asterisk indicates non-compaction layer.
Ijms 22 03786 g005
Ijms 22 03786 g006 550
Figure 6. Genetic analysis of II-1 (Family A). (A) Integrated genome view of exon 4 in DSG2 of patient II-1. (B) Electropherogram of exon 4 in DSG2 (II-1). The mutation DSG2–c.378+1G>T is affecting the donor splice site and is found in a homozygous status. (C) Karyoview of II-1. LOH = loss of heterozygosity. (D) Detailed ideogram of human chromosome 18 revealing a 15.6 Mb loss of heterozygosity (LOH).
Figure 6. Genetic analysis of II-1 (Family A). (A) Integrated genome view of exon 4 in DSG2 of patient II-1. (B) Electropherogram of exon 4 in DSG2 (II-1). The mutation DSG2–c.378+1G>T is affecting the donor splice site and is found in a homozygous status. (C) Karyoview of II-1. LOH = loss of heterozygosity. (D) Detailed ideogram of human chromosome 18 revealing a 15.6 Mb loss of heterozygosity (LOH).
Ijms 22 03786 g006
Ijms 22 03786 g007 550
Figure 7. (A–I) Genetic analysis of Family B. (A) Integrated genome view of exon 14 in DSG2 of patient II-2 (Family B). (B–F) Partial electropherograms of DSG2 exon 14 revealed for I-1 two heterozygous variants p.L772X and p.R773K (B), for I‑2 a wild-type sequence (C), for II-1 the heterozygous variant p.R773K (D), for II-2 hemizygous p.L772X (E), and for II-3 hemizygous p.R773K (F). (G) Karyoview of II-2 (Family B). LOH = loss of heterozygosity. (H–I) Detailed ideogram of human chromosome 18 revealing an additional deletion on the second chromosome affecting nearly the complete DSG2 gene.
Figure 7. (A–I) Genetic analysis of Family B. (A) Integrated genome view of exon 14 in DSG2 of patient II-2 (Family B). (B–F) Partial electropherograms of DSG2 exon 14 revealed for I-1 two heterozygous variants p.L772X and p.R773K (B), for I‑2 a wild-type sequence (C), for II-1 the heterozygous variant p.R773K (D), for II-2 hemizygous p.L772X (E), and for II-3 hemizygous p.R773K (F). (G) Karyoview of II-2 (Family B). LOH = loss of heterozygosity. (H–I) Detailed ideogram of human chromosome 18 revealing an additional deletion on the second chromosome affecting nearly the complete DSG2 gene.
Ijms 22 03786 g007
Table
Table 1. List of rare variants (MAF < 0.001) identified in the index patient II-1 (Family A).
Table 1. List of rare variants (MAF < 0.001) identified in the index patient II-1 (Family A).
GeneGenomic CoordinatesTranscriptKind of MutationProtein ChangeMAF 1ACMG Classification
DSG218:29100928NM_001943.3Splice Site MutationUnknownnovelLikely pathogenic
TBX312:115120963NM_016569.3Missensep.M15VnovelVUS
TRIM631:26380423NM_032588.3Missensep.D338Y0.0002671VUS
PKP212:32949101NM_004572.3Missensep.R811S0.00002828VUS
SDHA5:236628NM_004168.2Missensep.A449V0.000003543VUS
TTN2:179650454NM_001267550.1Missensep.D796N0.00007782VUS
LTBP214:74975348NM_000428.2Missensep.A1204V0.0008008VUS
1 According to the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD), https://gnomad.broadinstitute.org/, 20 January 2021; ACMG = American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, MAF = minor allele frequency, VUS = variant of unknown significance.
Table
Table 2. List of rare variants (MAF < 0.001) identified in the index patient II-2 (Family B).
Table 2. List of rare variants (MAF < 0.001) identified in the index patient II-2 (Family B).
GeneGenomic CoordinatesTranscriptKind of MutationProtein or cDNA ChangeMAF 1ACMG Classification
DSG218:29122796NM_001943.5nonsensep.L772XNovelLikely pathogenic
TTN2:179497960NM_001256850.1missensep.V12706A0.000008059VUS
PRDM161:3331216NM_022114.3unknownc.2691+5G>A0.0002009Likely benign
VCL10:75849080NM_014000.3missensep.S383RNovelVUS
SYNE214:64545208NM_182914.2missensep.S3683T0.0002230VUS
BAG310:121431767NM_004281.4missensep.R170W0.000004054VUS
PRDM161:3328948NM_022114.4missensep.F729L0.0003899Likely benign
RYR119:39014565NM_000540.3missensep.I3484T0.00005576VUS
1 According to the Genome Aggregation Database (gnomAD), https://gnomad.broadinstitute.org/, 20 January 2021; ACMG = American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, MAF = minor allele frequency, NA = not applicable, VUS = variant of unknown significance.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Brodehl, A.; Meshkov, A.; Myasnikov, R.; Kiseleva, A.; Kulikova, O.; Klauke, B.; Sotnikova, E.; Stanasiuk, C.; Divashuk, M.; Pohl, G.M.; et al. Hemi- and Homozygous Loss-of-Function Mutations in DSG2 (Desmoglein-2) Cause Recessive Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy with an Early Onset. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 3786. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073786

AMA Style

Brodehl A, Meshkov A, Myasnikov R, Kiseleva A, Kulikova O, Klauke B, Sotnikova E, Stanasiuk C, Divashuk M, Pohl GM, et al. Hemi- and Homozygous Loss-of-Function Mutations in DSG2 (Desmoglein-2) Cause Recessive Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy with an Early Onset. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(7):3786. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073786

Chicago/Turabian Style

Brodehl, Andreas, Alexey Meshkov, Roman Myasnikov, Anna Kiseleva, Olga Kulikova, Bärbel Klauke, Evgeniia Sotnikova, Caroline Stanasiuk, Mikhail Divashuk, Greta Marie Pohl, and et al. 2021. "Hemi- and Homozygous Loss-of-Function Mutations in DSG2 (Desmoglein-2) Cause Recessive Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy with an Early Onset" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 7: 3786. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073786

APA Style

Brodehl, A., Meshkov, A., Myasnikov, R., Kiseleva, A., Kulikova, O., Klauke, B., Sotnikova, E., Stanasiuk, C., Divashuk, M., Pohl, G. M., Kudryavtseva, M., Klingel, K., Gerull, B., Zharikova, A., Gummert, J., Koretskiy, S., Schubert, S., Mershina, E., Gärtner, A., ... Milting, H. (2021). Hemi- and Homozygous Loss-of-Function Mutations in DSG2 (Desmoglein-2) Cause Recessive Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy with an Early Onset. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(7), 3786. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073786

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop