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Volume 21
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Sensors, Volume 21, Issue 16 (August-2 2021) – 425 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): The aim of this study is to compensate the user’s body shadowing effect on the received signal strength indicator to improve fingerprinting-based indoor localization performance with a chest-mounted wearable device. The online phase performs additional tasks compared to the conventional fingerprinting methods to mitigate user’s BSE. Firstly, it estimates the angle between a wearable device and the reference nodes considering the user’s orientation. The idea of landmark graph along with arctangent function is used for angle estimation. To detect a landmark, an IMU-aided decision tree-based motion mode classifier is implemented. Then, a BSE compensation model is used to correct the RSSIs of the query fingerprint. Finally, the k-nearest neighbor algorithm is employed to calculate the location of an unknown target. View this paper.
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17 pages, 1776 KiB  
Article
Real-Time and Offline Evaluation of Myoelectric Pattern Recognition for the Decoding of Hand Movements
by Sara Abbaspour, Autumn Naber, Max Ortiz-Catalan, Hamid GholamHosseini and Maria Lindén
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5677; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165677 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4506
Abstract
Pattern recognition algorithms have been widely used to map surface electromyographic signals to target movements as a source for prosthetic control. However, most investigations have been conducted offline by performing the analysis on pre-recorded datasets. While real-time data analysis (i.e., classification when new [...] Read more.
Pattern recognition algorithms have been widely used to map surface electromyographic signals to target movements as a source for prosthetic control. However, most investigations have been conducted offline by performing the analysis on pre-recorded datasets. While real-time data analysis (i.e., classification when new data becomes available, with limits on latency under 200–300 milliseconds) plays an important role in the control of prosthetics, less knowledge has been gained with respect to real-time performance. Recent literature has underscored the differences between offline classification accuracy, the most common performance metric, and the usability of upper limb prostheses. Therefore, a comparative offline and real-time performance analysis between common algorithms had yet to be performed. In this study, we investigated the offline and real-time performance of nine different classification algorithms, decoding ten individual hand and wrist movements. Surface myoelectric signals were recorded from fifteen able-bodied subjects while performing the ten movements. The offline decoding demonstrated that linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) significantly (p < 0.05) outperformed other classifiers, with an average classification accuracy of above 97%. On the other hand, the real-time investigation revealed that, in addition to the LDA and MLE, multilayer perceptron also outperformed the other algorithms and achieved a classification accuracy and completion rate of above 68% and 69%, respectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Surface EMG and Applications in Gesture Recognition)
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16 pages, 37255 KiB  
Article
Point Cloud Hand–Object Segmentation Using Multimodal Imaging with Thermal and Color Data for Safe Robotic Object Handover
by Yan Zhang, Steffen Müller, Benedict Stephan, Horst-Michael Gross and Gunther Notni
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5676; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165676 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3512
Abstract
This paper presents an application of neural networks operating on multimodal 3D data (3D point cloud, RGB, thermal) to effectively and precisely segment human hands and objects held in hand to realize a safe human–robot object handover. We discuss the problems encountered in [...] Read more.
This paper presents an application of neural networks operating on multimodal 3D data (3D point cloud, RGB, thermal) to effectively and precisely segment human hands and objects held in hand to realize a safe human–robot object handover. We discuss the problems encountered in building a multimodal sensor system, while the focus is on the calibration and alignment of a set of cameras including RGB, thermal, and NIR cameras. We propose the use of a copper–plastic chessboard calibration target with an internal active light source (near-infrared and visible light). By brief heating, the calibration target could be simultaneously and legibly captured by all cameras. Based on the multimodal dataset captured by our sensor system, PointNet, PointNet++, and RandLA-Net are utilized to verify the effectiveness of applying multimodal point cloud data for hand–object segmentation. These networks were trained on various data modes (XYZ, XYZ-T, XYZ-RGB, and XYZ-RGB-T). The experimental results show a significant improvement in the segmentation performance of XYZ-RGB-T (mean Intersection over Union: 82.8% by RandLA-Net) compared with the other three modes (77.3% by XYZ-RGB, 35.7% by XYZ-T, 35.7% by XYZ), in which it is worth mentioning that the Intersection over Union for the single class of hand achieves 92.6%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Sensors and Data Processing in Robotics)
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17 pages, 8862 KiB  
Article
Processing Chain for Localization of Magnetoelectric Sensors in Real Time
by Christin Bald and Gerhard Schmidt
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5675; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165675 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2783
Abstract
The knowledge of the exact position and orientation of a sensor with respect to a source (distribution) is essential for the correct solution of inverse problems. Especially when measuring with magnetic field sensors, the positions and orientations of the sensors are not always [...] Read more.
The knowledge of the exact position and orientation of a sensor with respect to a source (distribution) is essential for the correct solution of inverse problems. Especially when measuring with magnetic field sensors, the positions and orientations of the sensors are not always fixed during measurements. In this study, we present a processing chain for the localization of magnetic field sensors in real time. This includes preprocessing steps, such as equalizing and matched filtering, an iterative localization approach, and postprocessing steps for smoothing the localization outcomes over time. We show the efficiency of this localization pipeline using an exchange bias magnetoelectric sensor. For the proof of principle, the potential of the proposed algorithm performing the localization in the two-dimensional space is investigated. Nevertheless, the algorithm can be easily extended to the three-dimensional space. Using the proposed pipeline, we achieve average localization errors between 1.12 cm and 6.90 cm in a localization area of size 50cm×50cm. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetoelectric Sensor Systems and Applications)
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34 pages, 2247 KiB  
Article
A DSL-Based Approach for Detecting Activities of Daily Living by Means of the AGGIR Variables
by José Manuel Negrete Ramírez, Philippe Roose, Marc Dalmau, Yudith Cardinale and Edgar Silva
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5674; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165674 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4291
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a framework for studying the AGGIR (Autonomie Gérontologique et Groupe Iso Ressources—Autonomy Gerontology Iso-Resources Groups) grid model, with the aim of assessing the level of independence of elderly people in accordance with their capabilities of performing daily activities [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose a framework for studying the AGGIR (Autonomie Gérontologique et Groupe Iso Ressources—Autonomy Gerontology Iso-Resources Groups) grid model, with the aim of assessing the level of independence of elderly people in accordance with their capabilities of performing daily activities as well as interacting with their environments. In order to model the Activities of Daily Living (ADL), we extend a previously proposed Domain Specific Language (DSL), by defining new operators to deal with constraints related to time and location of activities and event recognition. The proposed framework aims at providing an analysis tool regarding the performance of elderly/disabled people within a home environment by means of data recovered from sensors using a smart-home simulator environment. We perform an evaluation of our framework in several scenarios, considering five of the AGGIR variables (i.e., feeding, dressing, toileting, elimination, and transfers) as well as health-care devices for tracking the occurrence of elderly activities. The results demonstrate the accuracy of the proposed framework for managing the tracked records correctly and, thus, generate the appropriate event information related to the ADL. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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21 pages, 4800 KiB  
Article
Monocular Visual Position and Attitude Estimation Method of a Drogue Based on Coaxial Constraints
by Kedong Zhao, Yongrong Sun, Yi Zhang and Hua Li
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5673; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165673 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2355
Abstract
In aerial refueling, there exists deformation of the circular feature on the drogue’s stabilizing umbrella to a certain extent, which causes the problem of duality of position estimation by a single circular feature. In this paper, a monocular visual position and attitude estimation [...] Read more.
In aerial refueling, there exists deformation of the circular feature on the drogue’s stabilizing umbrella to a certain extent, which causes the problem of duality of position estimation by a single circular feature. In this paper, a monocular visual position and attitude estimation method of a drogue is proposed based on the coaxial constraints. Firstly, a procedure for scene recovery from one single circle is introduced. The coaxial constraints of the drogue are proposed and proved to be useful for the duality’s elimination by analyzing the matrix of the spatial structure. Furthermore, we came up with our method, which is composed of fitting the parameters of the spatial circles by restoring the 3D points on it, using the two-level coaxial constraints to eliminate the duality, and optimizing the normal vector of the plane where the inner circle is located. Finally, the effectiveness and robustness of the method proposed in this paper are verified, and the influence of the coaxial circle’s spatial structure on the method is explored through simulations of and experiments on a drogue model. Under the interference of a large amount of noise, the duality elimination success rate of our method can also be maintained at a level that is more than 10% higher than others. In addition, the accuracy of the normal vector obtained by the fusion algorithm is improved, and the mean angle error is reduced by more than 26.7%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Navigation and Perception Sensors and Systems for Robots, Autonomous Vehicles, and Wearable Technology)
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27 pages, 16094 KiB  
Article
Stochastic Identification of Guided Wave Propagation under Ambient Temperature via Non-Stationary Time Series Models
by Shabbir Ahmed and Fotis Kopsaftopoulos
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5672; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165672 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3069
Abstract
In the context of active-sensing guided-wave-based acousto-ultrasound structural health monitoring, environmental and operational variability poses a considerable challenge in the damage diagnosis process as they may mask the presence of damage. In this work, the stochastic nature of guided wave propagation due to [...] Read more.
In the context of active-sensing guided-wave-based acousto-ultrasound structural health monitoring, environmental and operational variability poses a considerable challenge in the damage diagnosis process as they may mask the presence of damage. In this work, the stochastic nature of guided wave propagation due to the small temperature variation, naturally occurring in the ambient or environment, is rigorously investigated and modeled with the help of stochastic time-varying time series models, for the first time, with a system identification point of view. More specifically, the output-only recursive maximum likelihood time-varying auto-regressive model (RML-TAR) is employed to investigate the uncertainty in guided wave propagation by analyzing the time-varying model parameters. The steps and facets of the identification procedure are presented, and the obtained model is used for modeling the uncertainty of the time-varying model parameters that capture the underlying dynamics of the guided waves. The stochasticity inherent in the modal properties of the system, such as natural frequencies and damping ratios, is also analyzed with the help of the identified RML-TAR model. It is stressed that the narrow-band high-frequency actuation for guided wave propagation excites more than one frequency in the system. The values and the time evolution of those frequencies are analyzed, and the associated uncertainties are also investigated. In addition, a high-fidelity finite element (FE) model was established and Monte Carlo simulations on that FE model were carried out to understand the effect of small temperature perturbation on guided wave signals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors)
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31 pages, 675 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of Android Malware Classification Services
by Mohammed Rashed and Guillermo Suarez-Tangil
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5671; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165671 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5549
Abstract
The increasing number of Android malware forced antivirus (AV) companies to rely on automated classification techniques to determine the family and class of suspicious samples. The research community relies heavily on such labels to carry out prevalence studies of the threat ecosystem and [...] Read more.
The increasing number of Android malware forced antivirus (AV) companies to rely on automated classification techniques to determine the family and class of suspicious samples. The research community relies heavily on such labels to carry out prevalence studies of the threat ecosystem and to build datasets that are used to validate and benchmark novel detection and classification methods. In this work, we carry out an extensive study of the Android malware ecosystem by surveying white papers and reports from 6 key players in the industry, as well as 81 papers from 8 top security conferences, to understand how malware datasets are used by both. We, then, explore the limitations associated with the use of available malware classification services, namely VirusTotal (VT) engines, for determining the family of an Android sample. Using a dataset of 2.47 M Android malware samples, we find that the detection coverage of VT’s AVs is generally very low, that the percentage of samples flagged by any 2 AV engines does not go beyond 52%, and that common families between any pair of AV engines is at best 29%. We rely on clustering to determine the extent to which different AV engine pairs agree upon which samples belong to the same family (regardless of the actual family name) and find that there are discrepancies that can introduce noise in automatic label unification schemes. We also observe the usage of generic labels and inconsistencies within the labels of top AV engines, suggesting that their efforts are directed towards accurate detection rather than classification. Our results contribute to a better understanding of the limitations of using Android malware family labels as supplied by common AV engines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Cyber Situational Awareness in Computer Networks)
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18 pages, 4773 KiB  
Article
Integrated Pose Estimation Using 2D Lidar and INS Based on Hybrid Scan Matching
by Gwangsoo Park, Byungjin Lee and Sangkyung Sung
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5670; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165670 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3060
Abstract
Point cloud data is essential measurement information that has facilitated an extended functionality horizon for urban mobility. While 3D lidar and image-depth sensors are superior in implementing mapping and localization, sense and avoidance, and cognitive exploration in an unknown area, applying 2D lidar [...] Read more.
Point cloud data is essential measurement information that has facilitated an extended functionality horizon for urban mobility. While 3D lidar and image-depth sensors are superior in implementing mapping and localization, sense and avoidance, and cognitive exploration in an unknown area, applying 2D lidar is inevitable for systems with limited resources of weight and computational power, for instance, in an aerial mobility system. In this paper, we propose a new pose estimation scheme that reflects the characteristics of extracted feature point information from 2D lidar on the NDT framework for exploiting an improved point cloud registration. In the case of the 2D lidar point cloud, vertices and corners can be viewed as representative feature points. Based on this feature point information, a point-to-point relationship is functionalized and reflected on a voxelized map matching process to deploy more efficient and promising matching performance. In order to present the navigation performance of the mobile object to which the proposed algorithm is applied, the matching result is combined with the inertial navigation through an integration filter. Then, the proposed algorithm was verified through a simulation study using a high-fidelity flight simulator and an indoor experiment. For performance validation, both results were compared and analyzed with the previous techniques. In conclusion, it was demonstrated that improved accuracy and computational efficiency could be achieved through the proposed algorithms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Navigation and Positioning)
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17 pages, 20672 KiB  
Article
A Study of Standardizing Frequencies Using Channel Raster for Underwater Wireless Acoustic Sensor Networks
by Changho Yun and Suhan Choi
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5669; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165669 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2549
Abstract
In this paper, we propose the method to standardize acoustic frequencies for underwater wireless acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) by applying the channel raster used in the terrestrial mobile communications. The standardization process includes: (1) Setting the available acoustic frequency band where a channel [...] Read more.
In this paper, we propose the method to standardize acoustic frequencies for underwater wireless acoustic sensor networks (UWASNs) by applying the channel raster used in the terrestrial mobile communications. The standardization process includes: (1) Setting the available acoustic frequency band where a channel raster is employed via the frequency specification analysis of the state-of-the art underwater acoustic communication modems. (2) Defining the center frequencies and the channel numbers as a function of channel raster, and the upper limit of the value of channel raster. (3) Determining the value of the channel raster suitable for the available acoustic frequency band via simulations. To set the value, three performance metrics are considered: the collision rate, the idle spectrum rate, and the receiver computational complexity. The simulation results show that the collision rate and the idle spectrum rate according to the value of channel raster have a trade-off relationship, but the influence of channel raster on the two performance metrics is insignificant. However, the receiver computational complexity is enhanced remarkably as the value of channel raster increases. Therefore, setting the value of channel raster close to its upper limit is the most adequate in respect of mitigating the occurrence of a collision and enhancing the reception performance. The standardized frequencies based on channel raster can guarantee the frequency compatibility required for the emerging technologies like the Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT) or the underwater cognitive radio, but also improves the network performance by avoiding the arbitrary use of frequencies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Underwater Sensor Networks and Internet of Underwater Things)
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14 pages, 2614 KiB  
Article
Photovoltaic Panels Classification Using Isolated and Transfer Learned Deep Neural Models Using Infrared Thermographic Images
by Waqas Ahmed, Aamir Hanif, Karam Dad Kallu, Abbas Z. Kouzani, Muhammad Umair Ali and Amad Zafar
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5668; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165668 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 4429
Abstract
Defective PV panels reduce the efficiency of the whole PV string, causing loss of investment by decreasing its efficiency and lifetime. In this study, firstly, an isolated convolution neural model (ICNM) was prepared from scratch to classify the infrared images of PV panels [...] Read more.
Defective PV panels reduce the efficiency of the whole PV string, causing loss of investment by decreasing its efficiency and lifetime. In this study, firstly, an isolated convolution neural model (ICNM) was prepared from scratch to classify the infrared images of PV panels based on their health, i.e., healthy, hotspot, and faulty. The ICNM occupies the least memory, and it also has the simplest architecture, lowest execution time, and an accuracy of 96% compared to transfer learned pre-trained ShuffleNet, GoogleNet, and SqueezeNet models. Afterward, ICNM, based on its advantages, is reused through transfer learning to classify the defects of PV panels into five classes, i.e., bird drop, single, patchwork, horizontally aligned string, and block with 97.62% testing accuracy. This proposed approach can identify and classify the PV panels based on their health and defects faster with high accuracy and occupies the least amount of the system’s memory, resulting in savings in the PV investment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Condition Monitoring, Field Inspection and Fault Diagnostic Methods for Photovoltaic Systems)
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14 pages, 3262 KiB  
Article
Polymer–Plasticizer Coatings for BTEX Detection Using Quartz Crystal Microbalance
by Abhijeet Iyer, Veselinka Mitevska, Jonathan Samuelson, Scott Campbell and Venkat R. Bhethanabotla
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5667; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165667 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2875
Abstract
Sensing films based on polymer–plasticizer coatings have been developed to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere at low concentrations (ppm) using quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs). Of particular interest in this work are the VOCs benzene, ethylbenzene, and toluene which, along with [...] Read more.
Sensing films based on polymer–plasticizer coatings have been developed to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere at low concentrations (ppm) using quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs). Of particular interest in this work are the VOCs benzene, ethylbenzene, and toluene which, along with xylene, are collectively referred to as BTEX. The combinations of four glassy polymers with five plasticizers were studied as prospective sensor films for this application, with PEMA-DINCH (5%) and PEMA-DIOA (5%) demonstrating optimal performance. This work shows how the sensitivity and selectivity of a glassy polymer film for BTEX detection can be altered by adding a precise amount and type of plasticizer. To quantify the film saturation dynamics and model the absorption of BTEX analyte molecules into the bulk of the sensing film, a diffusion study was performed in which the frequency–time curve obtained via QCM was correlated with gas-phase analyte composition and the infinite dilution partition coefficients of each constituent. The model was able to quantify the respective concentrations of each analyte from binary and ternary mixtures based on the difference in response time (τ) values using a single polymer–plasticizer film as opposed to the traditional approach of using a sensor array. This work presents a set of polymer–plasticizer coatings that can be used for detecting and quantifying the BTEX in air, and discusses the selection of an optimum film based on τ, infinite dilution partition coefficients, and stability over a period of time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development, Investigation and Application of Acoustic Sensors)
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17 pages, 2285 KiB  
Article
An Approach to Integrating Sentiment Analysis into Recommender Systems
by Cach N. Dang, María N. Moreno-García and Fernando De la Prieta
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5666; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165666 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 58 | Viewed by 11576
Abstract
Recommender systems have been applied in a wide range of domains such as e-commerce, media, banking, and utilities. This kind of system provides personalized suggestions based on large amounts of data to increase user satisfaction. These suggestions help client select products, while organizations [...] Read more.
Recommender systems have been applied in a wide range of domains such as e-commerce, media, banking, and utilities. This kind of system provides personalized suggestions based on large amounts of data to increase user satisfaction. These suggestions help client select products, while organizations can increase the consumption of a product. In the case of social data, sentiment analysis can help gain better understanding of a user’s attitudes, opinions and emotions, which is beneficial to integrate in recommender systems for achieving higher recommendation reliability. On the one hand, this information can be used to complement explicit ratings given to products by users. On the other hand, sentiment analysis of items that can be derived from online news services, blogs, social media or even from the recommender systems themselves is seen as capable of providing better recommendations to users. In this study, we present and evaluate a recommendation approach that integrates sentiment analysis into collaborative filtering methods. The recommender system proposal is based on an adaptive architecture, which includes improved techniques for feature extraction and deep learning models based on sentiment analysis. The results of the empirical study performed with two popular datasets show that sentiment–based deep learning models and collaborative filtering methods can significantly improve the recommender system’s performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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16 pages, 4368 KiB  
Article
Physical Tampering Detection Using Single COTS Wi-Fi Endpoint
by Poh Yuen Chan, Alexander I-Chi Lai, Pei-Yuan Wu and Ruey-Beei Wu
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5665; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165665 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3708
Abstract
This paper proposes a practical physical tampering detection mechanism using inexpensive commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) Wi-Fi endpoint devices with a deep neural network (DNN) on channel state information (CSI) in the Wi-Fi signals. Attributed to the DNN that identifies physical tampering events due to [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a practical physical tampering detection mechanism using inexpensive commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) Wi-Fi endpoint devices with a deep neural network (DNN) on channel state information (CSI) in the Wi-Fi signals. Attributed to the DNN that identifies physical tampering events due to the multi-subcarrier characteristics in CSI, our methodology takes effect using only one COTS Wi-Fi endpoint with a single embedded antenna to detect changes in the relative orientation between the Wi-Fi infrastructure and the endpoint, in contrast to previous sophisticated, proprietary approaches. Preliminary results show that our detectors manage to achieve a 95.89% true positive rate (TPR) with no worse than a 4.12% false positive rate (FPR) in detecting physical tampering events. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sensor Networks)
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17 pages, 39627 KiB  
Article
Comparisons of Differential Filtering and Homography Transformation in Modal Parameter Identification from UAV Measurement
by Jiqiao Zhang, Zhihua Wu, Gongfa Chen and Qiang Liang
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5664; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165664 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2463
Abstract
This paper proposes a differential filtering method for the identification of modal parameters of bridges from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) measurement. The determination of the modal parameters of bridges is a key issue in bridge damage detection. Accelerometers and fixed cameras have disadvantages [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a differential filtering method for the identification of modal parameters of bridges from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) measurement. The determination of the modal parameters of bridges is a key issue in bridge damage detection. Accelerometers and fixed cameras have disadvantages of deployment difficulty. Hence, the actual displacement of a bridge may be obtained by using the digital image correlation (DIC) technology from the images collected by a UAV. As drone movement introduces false displacement into the collected images, the homography transformation is commonly used to achieve geometric correction of the images and obtain the true displacement of the bridge. The homography transformation is not always applicable as it is based on at least four static reference points on the plane of target points. The proposed differential filtering method does not request any reference points and will greatly accelerate the identification of the modal parameters. The displacement of the points of interest is tracked by the DIC technology, and the obtained time history curves are processed by differential filtering. The filtered signals are input into the modal analysis system, and the basic modal parameters of the bridge model are obtained by the operational modal analysis (OMA) method. In this paper, the power spectral density (PSD) is used to identify the natural frequencies; the mode shapes are determined by the ratio of the PSD transmissibility (PSDT). The identification results of three types of signals are compared: UAV measurement with differential filtering, UAV measurement with homography transformation, and accelerometer-based measurement. It is found that the natural frequencies recognized by these three methods are almost the same. This paper demonstrates the feasibility of UAV-differential filtering method in obtaining the bridge modal parameters; the problems and challenges in UAV measurement are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Vehicular Sensing)
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37 pages, 4855 KiB  
Article
Removal of ECG Artifacts Affects Respiratory Muscle Fatigue Detection—A Simulation Study
by Lorenz Kahl and Ulrich G. Hofmann
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5663; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165663 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3259
Abstract
This work investigates elimination methods for cardiogenic artifacts in respiratory surface electromyographic (sEMG) signals and compares their performance with respect to subsequent fatigue detection with different fatigue algorithms. The analysis is based on artificially constructed test signals featuring a clearly defined expected fatigue [...] Read more.
This work investigates elimination methods for cardiogenic artifacts in respiratory surface electromyographic (sEMG) signals and compares their performance with respect to subsequent fatigue detection with different fatigue algorithms. The analysis is based on artificially constructed test signals featuring a clearly defined expected fatigue level. Test signals are additively constructed with different proportions from sEMG and electrocardiographic (ECG) signals. Cardiogenic artifacts are eliminated by high-pass filtering (HP), template subtraction (TS), a newly introduced two-step approach (TSWD) consisting of template subtraction and a wavelet-based damping step and a pure wavelet-based damping (DSO). Each method is additionally combined with the exclusion of QRS segments (gating). Fatigue is subsequently quantified with mean frequency (MNF), spectral moments ratio of order five (SMR5) and fuzzy approximate entropy (fApEn). Different combinations of artifact elimination methods and fatigue detection algorithms are tested with respect to their ability to deliver invariant results despite increasing ECG contamination. Both DSO and TSWD artifact elimination methods displayed promising results regarding the intermediate, “cleaned” EMG signal. However, only the TSWD method enabled superior results in the subsequent fatigue detection across different levels of artifact contamination and evaluation criteria. SMR5 could be determined as the best fatigue detection algorithm. This study proposes a signal processing chain to determine neuromuscular fatigue despite the presence of cardiogenic artifacts. The results furthermore underline the importance of selecting a combination of algorithms that play well together to remove cardiogenic artifacts and to detect fatigue. This investigation provides guidance for clinical studies to select optimal signal processing to detect fatigue from respiratory sEMG signals. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Methods for the Measurement of Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems)
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27 pages, 3808 KiB  
Review
The Recent Advancement in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Tracking Antenna: A Review
by Anabi Hilary Kelechi, Mohammed H. Alsharif, Damilare Abdulbasit Oluwole, Philip Achimugu, Osichinaka Ubadike, Jamel Nebhen, Atayero Aaron-Anthony and Peerapong Uthansakul
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5662; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165662 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7761
Abstract
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) antenna tracking system is an electromechanical component designed to track and steer the signal beams from the ground control station (GCS) to the airborne platform for optimum signal alignment. In a tracking system, an antenna continuously tracks a moving [...] Read more.
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) antenna tracking system is an electromechanical component designed to track and steer the signal beams from the ground control station (GCS) to the airborne platform for optimum signal alignment. In a tracking system, an antenna continuously tracks a moving target and records their position. A UAV tracking antenna system is susceptible to signal loss if omnidirectional antenna is deployed as the preferred design. Therefore, to achieve longer UAV distance communication, there is a need for directional high gain antenna. From design principle, directional antennas are known to focus their signal energy in a particular direction viewed from their radiation pattern which is concentrated in a particular azimuth direction. Unfortunately, a directional antenna is limited by angle, thus, it must always be directed to the target. The other limitation of a UAV mechanical beam steering system is that the system is expensive to maintain and with low reliability. To solve this problem, we are proposing the use of MIMO technology as a readily available technology for UAV beyond line of sight technology. Although UAV antenna tracking is domiciled in the mechanical beam steering arrangement, this study shows that this native technology could be usurped by MIMO beam forming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Communications)
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21 pages, 880 KiB  
Article
Transcending Conventional Biometry Frontiers: Diffusive Dynamics PPG Biometry
by Javier de Pedro-Carracedo, David Fuentes-Jimenez, Ana María Ugena and Ana Pilar Gonzalez-Marcos
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5661; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165661 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3061
Abstract
This paper presents the first photoplethysmographic (PPG) signal dynamic-based biometric authentication system with a Siamese convolutional neural network (CNN). Our method extracts the PPG signal’s biometric characteristics from its diffusive dynamics, characterized by geometric patterns in the (p,q)-planes [...] Read more.
This paper presents the first photoplethysmographic (PPG) signal dynamic-based biometric authentication system with a Siamese convolutional neural network (CNN). Our method extracts the PPG signal’s biometric characteristics from its diffusive dynamics, characterized by geometric patterns in the (p,q)-planes specific to the 0–1 test. PPG signal diffusive dynamics are strongly dependent on the vascular bed’s biostructure, unique to each individual. The dynamic characteristics of the PPG signal are more stable over time than its morphological features, particularly in the presence of psychosomatic conditions. Besides its robustness, our biometric method is anti-spoofing, given the complex nature of the blood network. Our proposal trains using a national research study database with 40 real-world PPG signals measured with commercial equipment. Biometric system results for input data, raw and preprocessed, are studied and compared with eight primary biometric methods related to PPG, achieving the best equal error rate (ERR) and processing times with a single attempt, among all of them. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Wearable Photoplethysmography Applications in Health Monitoring)
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23 pages, 2246 KiB  
Article
IoT Sensor Networks in Smart Buildings: A Performance Assessment Using Queuing Models
by Brena Santos, André Soares, Tuan-Anh Nguyen, Dug-Ki Min, Jae-Woo Lee and Francisco-Airton Silva
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5660; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165660 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3825
Abstract
Smart buildings in big cities are now equipped with an internet of things (IoT) infrastructure to constantly monitor different aspects of people’s daily lives via IoT devices and sensor networks. The malfunction and low quality of service (QoS) of such devices and networks [...] Read more.
Smart buildings in big cities are now equipped with an internet of things (IoT) infrastructure to constantly monitor different aspects of people’s daily lives via IoT devices and sensor networks. The malfunction and low quality of service (QoS) of such devices and networks can severely cause property damage and perhaps loss of life. Therefore, it is important to quantify different metrics related to the operational performance of the systems that make up such computational architecture even in advance of the building construction. Previous studies used analytical models considering different aspects to assess the performance of building monitoring systems. However, some critical points are still missing in the literature, such as (i) analyzing the capacity of computational resources adequate to the data demand, (ii) representing the number of cores per machine, and (iii) the clustering of sensors by location. This work proposes a queuing network based message exchange architecture to evaluate the performance of an intelligent building infrastructure associated with multiple processing layers: edge and fog. We consider an architecture of a building that has several floors and several rooms in each of them, where all rooms are equipped with sensors and an edge device. A comprehensive sensitivity analysis of the model was performed using the Design of Experiments (DoE) method to identify bottlenecks in the proposal. A series of case studies were conducted based on the DoE results. The DoE results allowed us to conclude, for example, that the number of cores can have more impact on the response time than the number of nodes. Simulations of scenarios defined through DoE allow observing the behavior of the following metrics: average response time, resource utilization rate, flow rate, discard rate, and the number of messages in the system. Three scenarios were explored: (i) scenario A (varying the number of cores), (ii) scenario B (varying the number of fog nodes), and (iii) scenario C (varying the nodes and cores simultaneously). Depending on the number of resources (nodes or cores), the system can become so overloaded that no new requests are supported. The queuing network based message exchange architecture and the analyses carried out can help system designers optimize their computational architectures before building construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Edge and Fog Computing for Internet of Things Systems)
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12 pages, 2171 KiB  
Article
Integrating Personal Air Sensor and GPS to Determine Microenvironment-Specific Exposures to Volatile Organic Compounds
by Michael S. Breen, Vlad Isakov, Steven Prince, Kennedy McGuinness, Peter P. Egeghy, Brent Stephens, Saravanan Arunachalam, Dan Stout, Richard Walker, Lillian Alston, Andrew A. Rooney, Kyla W. Taylor and Timothy J. Buckley
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5659; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165659 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3490
Abstract
Personal exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from indoor sources including consumer products is an understudied public health concern. To develop and evaluate methods for monitoring personal VOC exposures, we performed a pilot study and examined time-resolved sensor-based measurements of geocoded total VOC [...] Read more.
Personal exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from indoor sources including consumer products is an understudied public health concern. To develop and evaluate methods for monitoring personal VOC exposures, we performed a pilot study and examined time-resolved sensor-based measurements of geocoded total VOC (TVOC) exposures across individuals and microenvironments (MEs). We integrated continuous (1 min) data from a personal TVOC sensor and a global positioning system (GPS) logger, with a GPS-based ME classification model, to determine TVOC exposures in four MEs, including indoors at home (Home-In), indoors at other buildings (Other-In), inside vehicles (In-Vehicle), and outdoors (Out), across 45 participant-days for five participants. To help identify places with large emission sources, we identified high-exposure events (HEEs; TVOC > 500 ppb) using geocoded TVOC time-course data overlaid on Google Earth maps. Across the 45 participant-days, the MEs ranked from highest to lowest median TVOC were: Home-In (165 ppb), Other-In (86 ppb), In-Vehicle (52 ppb), and Out (46 ppb). For the two participants living in single-family houses with attached garages, the median exposures for Home-In were substantially higher (209, 416 ppb) than the three participant homes without attached garages: one living in a single-family house (129 ppb), and two living in apartments (38, 60 ppb). The daily average Home-In exposures exceeded the estimated Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) building guideline of 108 ppb for 60% of the participant-days. We identified 94 HEEs across all participant-days, and 67% of the corresponding peak levels exceeded 1000 ppb. The MEs ranked from the highest to the lowest number of HEEs were: Home-In (60), Other-In (13), In-Vehicle (12), and Out (9). For Other-In and Out, most HEEs occurred indoors at fast food restaurants and retail stores, and outdoors in parking lots, respectively. For Home-In HEEs, the median TVOC emission and removal rates were 5.4 g h−1 and 1.1 h−1, respectively. Our study demonstrates the ability to determine individual sensor-based time-resolved TVOC exposures in different MEs, in support of identifying potential sources and exposure factors that can inform exposure mitigation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor Applications for Measuring Air Quality in Remote and Developing Locations)
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19 pages, 7728 KiB  
Article
A Deep Learning-Based Fault Detection Model for Optimization of Shipping Operations and Enhancement of Maritime Safety
by Panayiotis Theodoropoulos, Christos C. Spandonidis, Fotis Giannopoulos and Spilios Fassois
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5658; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165658 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4846
Abstract
The ability to exploit data for obtaining useful and actionable information and for providing insights is an essential element for continuous process improvements. Recognizing the value of data as an asset, marine engineering puts data considerations at the core of system design. Used [...] Read more.
The ability to exploit data for obtaining useful and actionable information and for providing insights is an essential element for continuous process improvements. Recognizing the value of data as an asset, marine engineering puts data considerations at the core of system design. Used wisely, data can help the shipping sector to achieve operating cost savings and efficiency increase, higher safety, wellness of crew rates, and enhanced environmental protection and security of assets. The main goal of this study is to develop a methodology able to harmonize data collected from various sensors onboard and to implement a scalable and responsible artificial intelligence framework, to recognize patterns that indicate early signs of defective behavior in the operational state of the vessel. Specifically, the methodology examined in the present study is based on a 1D Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) being fed time series directly from the available dataset. For this endeavor, the dataset undergoes a preprocessing procedure. Aspiring to determine the effect of the parameters composing the networks and the values that ensure the best performance, a parametric inquiry is presented, determining the impact of the input period and the degree of degradation that our models identify adequately. The results provide an insightful picture of the applicability of 1D-CNN models in performing condition monitoring in ships, which is not thoroughly examined in the maritime sector for condition monitoring. The data modeling along with the development of the neural networks was undertaken with the Python programming language. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Fault Diagnosis & Sensors)
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14 pages, 7546 KiB  
Article
Explainable Artificial Intelligence for Bias Detection in COVID CT-Scan Classifiers
by Iam Palatnik de Sousa, Marley M. B. R. Vellasco and Eduardo Costa da Silva
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5657; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165657 - 23 Aug 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 4378
Abstract
Problem: An application of Explainable Artificial Intelligence Methods for COVID CT-Scan classifiers is presented. Motivation: It is possible that classifiers are using spurious artifacts in dataset images to achieve high performances, and such explainable techniques can help identify this issue. Aim: For this [...] Read more.
Problem: An application of Explainable Artificial Intelligence Methods for COVID CT-Scan classifiers is presented. Motivation: It is possible that classifiers are using spurious artifacts in dataset images to achieve high performances, and such explainable techniques can help identify this issue. Aim: For this purpose, several approaches were used in tandem, in order to create a complete overview of the classificatios. Methodology: The techniques used included GradCAM, LIME, RISE, Squaregrid, and direct Gradient approaches (Vanilla, Smooth, Integrated). Main results: Among the deep neural networks architectures evaluated for this image classification task, VGG16 was shown to be most affected by biases towards spurious artifacts, while DenseNet was notably more robust against them. Further impacts: Results further show that small differences in validation accuracies can cause drastic changes in explanation heatmaps for DenseNet architectures, indicating that small changes in validation accuracy may have large impacts on the biases learned by the networks. Notably, it is important to notice that the strong performance metrics achieved by all these networks (Accuracy, F1 score, AUC all in the 80 to 90% range) could give users the erroneous impression that there is no bias. However, the analysis of the explanation heatmaps highlights the bias. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Explainable and Augmented Machine Learning for Biosignals and Biomedical Images)
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16 pages, 2371 KiB  
Article
Lightweight Detection Network Based on Sub-Pixel Convolution and Objectness-Aware Structure for UAV Images
by Xuanye Li, Hongguang Li, Yalong Jiang and Meng Wang
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5656; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165656 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3250
Abstract
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) can serve as an ideal mobile platform in various situations. Real-time object detection with on-board apparatus provides drones with increased flexibility as well as a higher intelligence level. In order to achieve good detection results in UAV images with [...] Read more.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) can serve as an ideal mobile platform in various situations. Real-time object detection with on-board apparatus provides drones with increased flexibility as well as a higher intelligence level. In order to achieve good detection results in UAV images with complex ground scenes, small object size and high object density, most of the previous work introduced models with higher computational burdens, making deployment on mobile platforms more difficult.This paper puts forward a lightweight object detection framework. Besides being anchor-free, the framework is based on a lightweight backbone and a simultaneous up-sampling and detection module to form a more efficient detection architecture. Meanwhile, we add an objectness branch to assist the multi-class center point prediction, which notably improves the detection accuracy and only takes up very little computing resources. The results of the experiment indicate that the computational cost of this paper is 92.78% lower than the CenterNet with ResNet18 backbone, and the mAP is 2.8 points higher on the Visdrone-2018-VID dataset. A frame rate of about 220 FPS is achieved. Additionally, we perform ablation experiments to check on the validity of each part, and the method we propose is compared with other representative lightweight object detection methods on UAV image datasets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Multi-UAV) for Autonomous Transportation)
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26 pages, 5300 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Pipeline Hardware Architecture Based on Error Detection and Correction for AES
by Ignacio Algredo-Badillo, Kelsey A. Ramírez-Gutiérrez, Luis Alberto Morales-Rosales, Daniel Pacheco Bautista and Claudia Feregrino-Uribe
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5655; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165655 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4111
Abstract
Currently, cryptographic algorithms are widely applied to communications systems to guarantee data security. For instance, in an emerging automotive environment where connectivity is a core part of autonomous and connected cars, it is essential to guarantee secure communications both inside and outside the [...] Read more.
Currently, cryptographic algorithms are widely applied to communications systems to guarantee data security. For instance, in an emerging automotive environment where connectivity is a core part of autonomous and connected cars, it is essential to guarantee secure communications both inside and outside the vehicle. The AES algorithm has been widely applied to protect communications in onboard networks and outside the vehicle. Hardware implementations use techniques such as iterative, parallel, unrolled, and pipeline architectures. Nevertheless, the use of AES does not guarantee secure communication, because previous works have proved that implementations of secret key cryptosystems, such as AES, in hardware are sensitive to differential fault analysis. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that even a single fault during encryption or decryption could cause a large number of errors in encrypted or decrypted data. Although techniques such as iterative and parallel architectures have been explored for fault detection to protect AES encryption and decryption, it is necessary to explore other techniques such as pipelining. Furthermore, balancing a high throughput, reducing low power consumption, and using fewer hardware resources in the pipeline design are great challenges, and they are more difficult when considering fault detection and correction. In this research, we propose a novel hybrid pipeline hardware architecture focusing on error and fault detection for the AES cryptographic algorithm. The architecture is hybrid because it combines hardware and time redundancy through a pipeline structure, analyzing and balancing the critical path and distributing the processing elements within each stage. The main contribution is to present a pipeline structure for ciphering five times on the same data blocks, implementing a voting module to verify when an error occurs or when output has correct cipher data, optimizing the process, and using a decision tree to reduce the complexity of all combinations required for evaluating. The architecture is analyzed and implemented on several FPGA technologies, and it reports a throughput of 0.479 Gbps and an efficiency of 0.336 Mbps/LUT when a Virtex-7 is used. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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11 pages, 430 KiB  
Article
An Improved Feature Selection Method Based on Random Forest Algorithm for Wind Turbine Condition Monitoring
by Guo Li, Chensheng Wang, Di Zhang and Guang Yang
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5654; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165654 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3345
Abstract
Feature selection and dimensionality reduction are important for the performance of wind turbine condition monitoring models using supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) data. In this paper, an improved random forest algorithm, namely Feature Simplification Random Forest (FS_RF), is proposed, which is capable [...] Read more.
Feature selection and dimensionality reduction are important for the performance of wind turbine condition monitoring models using supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) data. In this paper, an improved random forest algorithm, namely Feature Simplification Random Forest (FS_RF), is proposed, which is capable of identifying features closely correlated with wind turbine working conditions. The Euclidian distances are employed to distinguish the weight of the same feature among different samples, and its importance is measured by means of the random forest algorithm. The selected features are finally verified by a two-layer gated recurrent unit (GRU) neural network facilitating condition monitoring. The experimental results demonstrate the capacity and effectiveness of the proposed method for wind turbine condition monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Intelligent Sensors)
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18 pages, 3777 KiB  
Article
5G Standalone and 4G Multi-Carrier Network-in-a-Box Using a Software Defined Radio Framework
by Karolis Kiela, Marijan Jurgo, Vytautas Macaitis and Romualdas Navickas
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5653; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165653 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4866
Abstract
In this work, an open Radio Access Network (RAN), compatible, scalable and highly flexible Software Defined Radio (SDR)-based Remote Radio Head (RRH) framework is proposed and designed. Such framework can be used to implement flexible wideband radio solutions, which can be deployed in [...] Read more.
In this work, an open Radio Access Network (RAN), compatible, scalable and highly flexible Software Defined Radio (SDR)-based Remote Radio Head (RRH) framework is proposed and designed. Such framework can be used to implement flexible wideband radio solutions, which can be deployed in any region, have common radio management features, and support various channel bandwidths. Moreover, it enables easier access for researchers to nonsimulated cellular networks, reduce system development time, provide test and measurement capabilities, and support existing and emerging wireless communication technologies. The performance of the proposed SDR framework is validated by creating a Network-in-a-Box (NIB) that can operate in multiband multicarrier 4G or 5G standalone (SA) configurations, with an output power of up to 33 dBm. Measurement results show, that the 4G and 5G NIB can achieve, respectively, up to 883 Mbps and 765 Mbps downlink data transfer speeds for a 100 MHz aggregated bandwidth. However, if six carriers are used in the 4G NIB, 1062 Mbps downlink data transfer speed can be achieved. When single user equipment (UE) is used, maximum uplink data transfer speed is 65.8 Mbps and 92.6 Mbps in case of 4G and 5G, respectively. The average packet latency in case of 5G is up to 45.1% lower than 4G. CPU load by the eNodeB and gNodeB is proportional to occupied bandwidth, but under the same aggregated DL bandwidth conditions, gNodeB load on the CPU is lower. Moreover, if only 1 UE is active, under same aggregated bandwidth conditions, the EPC CPU load is up to four times lower than the 5GC. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Experimentation in 5G and beyond Networks: State of the Art and the Way Forward)
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19 pages, 4617 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of the Uniformity of Protective Coatings on Concrete Structure Surfaces Based on Cluster Analysis
by Dunwen Liu, Wanmao Zhang, Yu Tang, Yinghua Jian, Chun Gong and Fengkai Qiu
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5652; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165652 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2799
Abstract
With the continuous development of urbanization and industrialization in the world, concrete is widely used in various engineering constructions as an engineering material. However, the consequent problem of durability of concrete structures is also becoming increasingly prominent. As an important additional measure, a [...] Read more.
With the continuous development of urbanization and industrialization in the world, concrete is widely used in various engineering constructions as an engineering material. However, the consequent problem of durability of concrete structures is also becoming increasingly prominent. As an important additional measure, a protective coating can effectively improve the durability of concrete performance. Moreover, the uniformity of the concrete surface coating will directly affect its protective effect. Therefore, we propose a nondestructive inspection and evaluation method of coating uniformity based on infrared imaging and cluster analysis for concrete surface coating uniformity detection and evaluation. Based on the obtained infrared images, a series of processing and analysis of the images were carried out using MATLAB software to obtain the characteristics of the infrared images of the concrete surface. Finally, by extracting the temperature distribution data of the pixel points on the concrete surface, an evaluation method of concrete surface coating uniformity based on a combination of cluster analysis and hierarchical analysis was established. The evaluation results show that the determination results obtained by this method are consistent with the actual situation. This study has a positive contribution to the testing of concrete surface coating uniformity and its evaluation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Infrared Sensor Technologies and Applications)
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25 pages, 11212 KiB  
Article
Indirect Estimation of Breathing Rate from Heart Rate Monitoring System during Running
by Gaëlle Prigent, Kamiar Aminian, Tiago Rodrigues, Jean-Marc Vesin, Grégoire P. Millet, Mathieu Falbriard, Frédéric Meyer and Anisoara Paraschiv-Ionescu
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5651; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165651 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7805
Abstract
Recent advances in wearable technologies integrating multi-modal sensors have enabled the in-field monitoring of several physiological metrics. In sport applications, wearable devices have been widely used to improve performance while minimizing the risk of injuries and illness. The objective of this project is [...] Read more.
Recent advances in wearable technologies integrating multi-modal sensors have enabled the in-field monitoring of several physiological metrics. In sport applications, wearable devices have been widely used to improve performance while minimizing the risk of injuries and illness. The objective of this project is to estimate breathing rate (BR) from respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) using heart rate (HR) recorded with a chest belt during physical activities, yielding additional physiological insight without the need of an additional sensor. Thirty-one healthy adults performed a run at increasing speed until exhaustion on an instrumented treadmill. RR intervals were measured using the Polar H10 HR monitoring system attached to a chest belt. A metabolic measurement system was used as a reference to evaluate the accuracy of the BR estimation. The evaluation of the algorithms consisted of exploring two pre-processing methods (band-pass filters and relative RR intervals transformation) with different instantaneous frequency tracking algorithms (short-term Fourier transform, single frequency tracking, harmonic frequency tracking and peak detection). The two most accurate BR estimations were achieved by combining band-pass filters with short-term Fourier transform, and relative RR intervals transformation with harmonic frequency tracking, showing 5.5% and 7.6% errors, respectively. These two methods were found to provide reasonably accurate BR estimation over a wide range of breathing frequency. Future challenges consist in applying/validating our approaches during in-field endurance running in the context of fatigue assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wearables)
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26 pages, 4675 KiB  
Article
A Data Analytics/Big Data Framework for Advanced Metering Infrastructure Data
by Jenniffer S. Guerrero-Prado, Wilfredo Alfonso-Morales and Eduardo F. Caicedo-Bravo
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5650; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165650 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5934
Abstract
The Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) data represent a source of information in real time not only about electricity consumption but also as an indicator of other social, demographic, and economic dynamics within a city. This paper presents a Data Analytics/Big Data framework applied [...] Read more.
The Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) data represent a source of information in real time not only about electricity consumption but also as an indicator of other social, demographic, and economic dynamics within a city. This paper presents a Data Analytics/Big Data framework applied to AMI data as a tool to leverage the potential of this data within the applications in a Smart City. The framework includes three fundamental aspects. First, the architectural view places AMI within the Smart Grids Architecture Model-SGAM. Second, the methodological view describes the transformation of raw data into knowledge represented by the DIKW hierarchy and the NIST Big Data interoperability model. Finally, a binding element between the two views is represented by human expertise and skills to obtain a deeper understanding of the results and transform knowledge into wisdom. Our new view faces the challenges arriving in energy markets by adding a binding element that gives support for optimal and efficient decision-making. To show how our framework works, we developed a case study. The case implements each component of the framework for a load forecasting application in a Colombian Retail Electricity Provider (REP). The MAPE for some of the REP’s markets was less than 5%. In addition, the case shows the effect of the binding element as it raises new development alternatives and becomes a feedback mechanism for more assertive decision making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensors and Data Analytic Applications for Smart Cities)
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19 pages, 4930 KiB  
Article
A Tactical Conflict Resolution Proposal for U-Space Zu Airspace Volumes
by Jesús Jover, Aurelio Bermúdez and Rafael Casado
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5649; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165649 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3186
Abstract
Conflict management between UAVs is one of the key aspects in developing future urban aerial mobility (UAM) spaces, such as the one proposed in U-Space. In the framework of tactical conflict management, i.e., with the UAVs in flight, this paper presents PCAN (Prediction-based [...] Read more.
Conflict management between UAVs is one of the key aspects in developing future urban aerial mobility (UAM) spaces, such as the one proposed in U-Space. In the framework of tactical conflict management, i.e., with the UAVs in flight, this paper presents PCAN (Prediction-based Conflict-free Adaptive Navigation). This relatively simple navigation technique predicts the occurrence of the conflict and avoids it by modifying the velocity vector of the UAVs involved. The performance evaluation carried out demonstrates its effectiveness compared to similar techniques, even in high-density scenarios, while proving a low overhead in flight time or in the distance traveled by the UAVs to reach their destinations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Navigation and Positioning)
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21 pages, 5228 KiB  
Article
Intra-Day Solar Power Forecasting Strategy for Managing Virtual Power Plants
by Guillermo Moreno, Carlos Santos, Pedro Martín, Francisco Javier Rodríguez, Rafael Peña and Branislav Vuksanovic
Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5648; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165648 - 22 Aug 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3493
Abstract
Solar energy penetration has been on the rise worldwide during the past decade, attracting a growing interest in solar power forecasting over short time horizons. The increasing integration of these resources without accurate power forecasts hinders the grid operation and discourages the use [...] Read more.
Solar energy penetration has been on the rise worldwide during the past decade, attracting a growing interest in solar power forecasting over short time horizons. The increasing integration of these resources without accurate power forecasts hinders the grid operation and discourages the use of this renewable resource. To overcome this problem, Virtual Power Plants (VPPs) provide a solution to centralize the management of several installations to minimize the forecasting error. This paper introduces a method to efficiently produce intra-day accurate Photovoltaic (PV) power forecasts at different locations, by using free and available information. Prediction intervals, which are based on the Mean Absolute Error (MAE), account for the forecast uncertainty which provides additional information about the VPP node power generation. The performance of the forecasting strategy has been verified against the power generated by a real PV installation, and a set of ground-based meteorological stations in geographical proximity have been used to emulate a VPP. The forecasting approach is based on a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network and shows similar errors to those obtained with other deep learning methods published in the literature, offering a MAE performance of 44.19 W/m2 under different lead times and launch times. By applying this technique to 8 VPP nodes, the global error is reduced by 12.37% in terms of the MAE, showing huge potential in this environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Sensor for Smartgrids and Microgrids)
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