Investments in Renewable Energy in Rural Communes: An Analysis of Regional Disparities in Poland

Abstract

Although energy transformation is a widely discussed topic, there is a dearth of research on the role of rural communes in implementing that concept in Poland, a country where rural areas account for more than 90% of the total landmass. Most research projects are focused on larger local government units, such as cities, whereas rural communes’ role in the development of local energy policies and impact on the development of renewable energy sources (RESs) is often disregarded. Therefore, this study extends the existing literature resources with a view to bridging that gap by assessing rural communes’ investment activity in the context of the Polish energy transformation, with particular emphasis on regional differences in RES investments financed with Union funds. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to assess the contribution of rural communes to the Polish energy transformation process, with a particular focus on regional differences in renewable energy investments financed with European Union funds in the successive seven-year financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. The study aimed to answer the following key research questions: how does the level of rural communes’ investment activities related to renewable energy development compare to that of other commune types? What are the regional differences in rural communes’ investment activities related to renewable energy? What are the main factors affecting rural communes’ investment activity in regions most involved in the development of renewable energies? The study relies on data from the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy and from the Local Data Bank of the Central Statistical Office. The dataset was processed with the use of descriptive statistics methods and Ward’s method with a view to identifying regional patterns and conditions for the development of renewable energy investments. This study focuses on the investment activities of rural communes in Poland related to RESs financed with European Union funds. The empirical research results highlight rural municipalities’ crucial role in developing RES, emphasizing their high investment activity and significant regional differences. Municipalities from the eastern Polish provinces of Lublin and Podlasie have successfully secured EU funds for RES development. They have implemented numerous projects, primarily related to solar energy.

1. Introduction

Polish energy transformation is a process of key importance, especially in the context of the growing need for both reducing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing energy efficiency. The change in the energy model consists of shifting away from non-renewable energies to renewable ones and is a pivotal part of global efforts for fighting climate change, supporting sustainable development, and implementing a fair energy transformation in Europe and around the world [1,2]. In addition to being an environmental requirement, the transformation is also a strategic priority. Its purpose is to make nations energy secure and independent from external energy supplies from politically unstable countries [3]. In the context of growing geopolitical tensions, such as the armed conflict in Ukraine, and surging energy prices, the transition to renewables takes on more and more importance [4].

Since the Industrial Revolution, Europe has witnessed steady growth in the use of fossil fuels, which provided momentum for economic development while also addressing the needs of the growing population and contributing to improvements in the standards of living [5]. Currently, as coal and lignite have an approximate share of 60.5% in Polish energy production, they continue to be the dominant source of energy for the country. Although decarbonization is progressing well in the electricity sector, other industries are lagging behind [6]. Fossil resources are becoming increasingly insufficient in meeting global demand, and their exhaustion poses a challenge requiring the transformation of energy systems to make them more sustainable [7]. According to expert warnings, if consumption remains at the current level, non-renewable resources may become exhausted by 2040 [8]. As the Polish energy sector continues to strongly rely on coal and lignite, the country faces growing pressure to accelerate the introduction of renewables not only due to fossil fuel resources being scarce but also because the European Union (EU) requires Poland to reduce carbon emissions and develop a low-carbon economy. In the last two Union perspectives, i.e., 2007–2013 and 2014–2020, Poland saw considerable growth in the share of renewables in electric energy production, namely a surge from 3.4% in 2007 to 10.4% in 2023, and from 12.5% in 2014 to 17.9% in 2020 [9]. Currently, renewables account for ca. 20% of the energy mix, with wind power and photovoltaics playing a key role (at 53% and 22%, respectively). The Polish government foresees further growth in that ratio and has set the target level at ca. 21% to be attained by 2030, primarily thanks to the intense development of photovoltaic and marine wind farm capacity [10].

EU policy is committed to increasing the share of renewables in total energy consumption. In accordance with the goals of the European Green Deal, 32% of energy in the EU is supposed to be derived from renewables by 2030 [1]. The Union’s long-term goal is to shift to a low-carbon energy system by 2050. In order for this to happen, there is a need for intensified measures focused on the transition from coal-based energies to renewables. As rural areas account for more than 90% of the Polish territory, rural communes face particularly important challenges. The development of renewable energy in these regions is key for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving energy efficiency ratios [11].

The development of rural renewable energy sources (RESs) is of particular importance not only in the context of reducing emissions but also as a way of supporting local economies and sustainable national development. For many regions, especially those struggling with depopulation and economic restrictions, the development of RESs may provide an opportunity to strengthen the local economy, create jobs, and generate income from land leases [2,11,12].

Renewable energy investments also represent a significant driver of social awareness, which increases support for energy transformation measures. This is important because while rural communities become increasingly aware of what renewables are, their knowledge is often superficial and out-of-date. This indicates the need for a hands-on local approach to education which could foster a change in attitudes and encourage actual activity [13,14]. Engaging the local communities in renewable energy projects is a way to make a steady shift towards a low-carbon economy, which contributes to sustainable development and has an impact on long-term support for climate measures [15]. EU funds used in co-financing these efforts play a key role in accelerating the development of renewables, thus enabling the implementation of costly projects, which often go beyond the financial capacity of local government units. As indicated by Sachs et al. [16], in view of the exacerbating effects of climate change coupled with low levels of investment in relevant countermeasures, local government units and the financial sector will have no other option but to adopt a long-term concept of sustainable environmental investments. The allocation and structure of their capital resources will need to be used in supporting projects designed to meet the EU’s environmental goals.

Although energy transformation has been widely discussed in Poland, there is a lack of measures that would precisely identify the role of rural communes in implementing it. Most research projects are focused on larger local government units, such as cities [17], whereas the rural communes’ contribution to the development of local energy policies and impact on the development of renewable energies is often disregarded. Exceptions include a few studies focusing on these areas, which highlight the need for greater involvement of local authorities and the adaptation of policies to the specific characteristics of rural communes [18,19,20]. This issue, however, is not unique to Poland. The international literature indicates that similar shortcomings in recognizing the role of rural areas in the energy transition process exist in other EU countries, such as Germany, Spain, and France, where energy investments and policies are also predominantly focused on cities and larger urban centers [21]. Nevertheless, existing studies typically address selected regions or cases and lack a comprehensive analysis that encompasses all rural communes or compares regional differences in scale, efficiency, and investments across two consecutive EU financial perspectives. Even though the literature on the subject includes studies on Polish investments in RESs [18,22,23,24,25,26,27] none of them addresses all rural communes and none of them compares the regional differences in scale, efficiency, and investments between the two successive EU financial perspectives. Therefore, this study extends the existing literature resources with a view to bridging that gap by assessing the rural communes’ investment activity in the context of the Polish energy transformation, with particular emphasis on regional differences in RES investments financed with Union funds.

The purpose of this study is to assess the role of rural communes in the Polish energy transformation process, with focus being placed on regional differences in the development of RES investments financed with Union funds. The analysis spans the last two financial perspectives of the European Union, i.e., 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. The aim of the study is to answer the following key research questions: (1) How does the level of rural communes’ investment activities related to RES development compare to that of other commune types? (2) What are the regional differences in rural communes’ investment activities related to RESs? (3) What are the determinants of rural communes’ investment activities related to RESs in regions that demonstrate the highest levels of activity in that area?

2. Energy Transformation in Rural Communes: Renewable Energy Investments Supported with EU Funds

In today’s world, fossil fuels continue to be relatively easily available. However, the key challenge is to significantly reduce their use while accelerating the implementation of low-emission energy technologies. At the same time, there is an urgent need to focus on the reduction of general demand for energy and improvements in energy efficiency ratios [28]. Energy transformation is a process of converting energy systems towards a more sustainable, environmentally friendly model that is less dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or gas.

Energy transformation is the intentional conversion of energy from one form to another through human-induced physical processes. This process encompasses various technologies and their environmental impacts, including emerging systems and their externalities [29].

The energy transformation process is also defined as a gradual transition from a traditional energy supply path to a new system based on structural changes in primary energy production, witnessed at the global, country, and household levels [30]. According to Miller [31], the scientific community equates energy transformation not only with a shift to other fuels but also with a redefinition of whole socioeconomic and political systems.

The literature on the subject focuses on both the pace and the nature of energy transformation [32,33,34,35]. The pace is a matter of key importance because, as emphasized by the International Energy Agency (IEA), 2020–2030 is a “critical period” where global carbon emissions must be reduced by ca. 45% against 2010 levels in order to enable zero net emissions to be attained by 2050 [36,37].

The reasons behind energy transformation, including the development of the renewables sector, are diverse and span climate (environmental), economic, and social aspects. In addition to the factors listed above, Kappner et al. [38] also indicate technological and political factors.

The main reason for the transformation is the fight against climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels. Reducing these is crucial, and is intended to restrict global warming and protect the environment. Therefore, it also forms an important part of the energy and climate policy in Poland, one of the most coal-dependent members of the EU [39]. Reducing the use of coal is also the goal of the national air quality improvement policy because of the substantial negative health impacts of toxic emissions [40]. The purpose of the transformation is to reduce the dependency on expensive fossil fuels which affect high energy prices, especially in view of the shortage of production capacity. Moreover, the extraction of fossil fuels becomes less and less profitable [41]. Nevertheless, low-emission energies have not (yet) started to replace fossil fuels in the global energy mix [42].

Another reason is the growing demand for electricity driven by the digitization and electrification of many sectors. The development of new technologies, such as renewables, energy storage, and heat pumps, has a favorable effect on increasing energy efficiency and reducing energy production costs, thus accelerating the energy transformation process. Finally, there is significant growth in social awareness of the potential behind national sources of energy. What also needs to be mentioned on top of the above considerations is the willingness and determination of some political leaders [43].

RESs are one of the basic elements of sustainable development [44,45,46]. They are also a key part of energy transformation whose purpose is to shift away from fossil fuels to sustainable development coupled with a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. RESs are defined as resources that are needed in the production of heat, electricity, or mechanical energy and do not deplete or can be replenished in a relatively short time frame [47]. The International Energy Agency [48] defines them as energies derived from natural processes that are continuously renewed. They can take on different forms, and come directly or indirectly from solar energy and heat from the earth’s interior [49]. The scope of that definition includes energy produced by solar radiation, wind, water currents, and marine and oceanic waves and tides [50]. This category also includes biomass, biogas, products of animal origin, and biodegradable municipal waste. Renewables also mean heat obtained from the ground (heat pumps, geothermal energy), from the air (aerothermal energy), and from water (hydrothermal energy) [51,52,53,54]. The most important source of renewable energy in Poland is biomass [55]. However, it consistently loses its share to wind power and photovoltaics [56].

The growing interest in renewables is caused by the depletion of traditional energy resources [4,57,58,59,60]. Also, as mentioned before, the use of conventional energies leads to environmental damage and pollution. Therefore, finding a balance between social and economic needs and environmental protection plays an increasingly important role at the regional and local levels. That trend can be clearly seen in EU policy, which relies on sustainable development and environmental protection concepts as major drivers of EU programs and economic measures [61].

In view of the worldwide climate change, Poland, too, must gradually shift away from fossil fuels and turn to low-emission and zero-emission energies. The key element in seeking sustainable development and combating climate change is to develop a low-emission economy in rural areas. In many European countries, rural areas are perfect locations for renewable energy facilities (such as wind farms, solar power plants, or biogas installations) because of their specific geographic conditions [62]. As shown in research by Bódis et al. [63], Poland has a favorable potential for developing photovoltaics, for instance, especially keeping in mind its geographic location and climate zone. Other scientists emphasize that Poland enjoys appropriate weather conditions for developing wind farms [64]. The development of renewable sources such as biogas installations, wind farms, and photovoltaic installations provides an opportunity for sustainable growth and development in Polish rural areas [11,65,66]. In addition to solving environmental problems, the transformation also creates new outlooks for local rural communities and economies [65].

However, the development of renewable energies is not challenge-free. Although renewable energy plants may lead to decentralization of energy systems and reduction in transmission losses, local communities are not always the ones who reap these benefits. In some cases, profits derived from renewables go to external investors, whereas local communities experience such adverse effects as landscape degradation, noise, or reduced availability of land for other investments [67,68].

As renewable energies are much more dispersed than traditional ones based on fossil fuels, their decentralized production poses a certain challenge. At the same time, the decentralized demand for energy—driven by the needs of households, economic operators, and other entities—leads to local government units playing an increasingly important role in that respect [69]. As they know the local conditions and needs, they are perfectly positioned to become major participants in the energy market. Indeed, local goods and services should be delivered at the lowest administrative level in order for the process to be as economically efficient as possible [70].

Hence, Polish basic local government units (communes) gain importance as participants in the energy distribution process. The role of communes in the energy transformation process is also emphasized by Kozłowski [71]. On the one hand, communes can act as renewable energy producers and distributors, whether on their own or through dependent entities, such as local authority undertakings. On the other, they must support local residents and entrepreneurs in accessing funds for renewable energy investments, acting as a counseling and promoting authority [72].

The development of rural renewables would be considerably restricted without financial support with Union funds, which represent an important financial stream for this kind of investment. Union support enables rural communes to implement energy projects that otherwise would be overly expensive or technologically impracticable. When provided with support from the Union, rural areas can effectively shift to sustainable energies, which contributes to environmental enhancements and to making them less reliant on fossil fuels. For instance, Union funds cover a considerable part of the costs involved in building and upgrading the renewable energy infrastructure, such as photovoltaic installations, small wind farms, or biogas installations, which enable rural residents to reap the benefits of green energy. Union programs often support educational and consulting measures that encourage the rural population to engage in renewable energy projects. This includes organizing training sessions, workshops, and information campaigns so that the local communities may realize the advantages of renewable energies and learn how to take an active part in the energy transformation process. Renewable investment processes improve the residents’ quality of life and may counteract rural depopulation by making rural areas a more attractive place for living thanks to better access to green energy and state-of-the-art infrastructure. With Union funds, rural communes and communities not only can access capital resources for green energy development, but become empowered to fully tap into the benefits brought by the transition to modern, sustainable energy systems. The support they receive is not only conducive to environmental protection but also helps build more self-reliant, economically resilient rural communities [54,72,73,74,75,76]. The measures they take contribute to increasing the share of renewables in their region’s energy mix.

3. Materials and Methods

This study focuses on investment activities related to RESs financed with European Union funds of rural communes in Poland. Union regulations require member states to ensure transparency in how EU budget funds are spent, which involves publishing detailed data on projects they implement. In Poland, this is the responsibility of the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy. Of the projects implemented under financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020, this study chose those compliant with goal 04: supporting the shift towards a low-carbon economy in all sectors. Next, it identified the projects directly related to renewables, such as 005—Electricity (storage and industry), 009—Renewable energy: Wind power, 010—Renewable energy: solar power, 011—Renewable energy: biomass, and 012—Other types of renewable energy [77,78].

Ultimately, the study covered 771 projects implemented by rural communes grouped by Polish regions. Additional data relating to the socioeconomic, financial, and environmental situation of Polish rural communes and regions were retrieved from the Local Data Bank of the Central Statistical Office. Such an approach enabled a comprehensive analysis of how regions differ in their renewable energy investments, by taking into account not only the number and scope of projects but also the local conditions that may affect their development. The results are expressed in the Polish currency (key data were converted to euros as per the weighted average exchange rate of the National Bank in 2024 [79].

The study focused on rural communes and examined how their activity in the area of renewable energy investments co-financed with EU funds compares against other administrative types of communes, i.e., urban communes, urban–rural communes, and urban districts. The analysis also covered the differences in investment levels between regions. Hence, the study was mostly focused on Polish administrative regions classified as per NUTS2, which is part of the NUTS (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) system used by Eurostat for EU statistical and administrative purposes. Data on the communes’ investment activity related to renewable energies were aggregated at the region level, which allows for a more complete assessment of differences between them while also supporting strategic planning and public policy development processes.

The study assessed the regional differences in rural communes’ renewable energy investments co-financed with European Union funds under the financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020 in order to address the research questions asked earlier in this paper. It was conducted in three stages. The empirical material was analyzed with the use of basic methods of descriptive statistics, comparative analysis tools, i.e., Ward’s method (a taxonomic method used primarily in hierarchical clustering) (stages 1 and 2), the dependent samples test (i.e., a statistical inference technique), and the correlation analysis (stage 3) (Figure 1).

The first stage centered on analyzing the differences in the amount of funds granted by the EU to renewable energy investments between rural communes and other administrative types of Polish communes. This included comparing the numbers and values of projects implemented by each commune and calculating the percentage of communes provided with support during the financial perspectives covered by the study.

Based on selected sub-indicators, the second stage of the study consisted of a single-dimensional assessment of the level of, and growth in, investment activity of rural communes located in different Polish regions. This was followed by employing Ward’s method (1963) in order to carry out a multidimensional analysis of differences in activity levels. The purpose of it was to extract clusters of regions at a similar level of renewable energy investments. Ward’s method, as a cluster analysis technique, minimizes the sum of squared deviations inside groups, making it one of the most efficient methods of hierarchical clustering [80]. The study consisted of the following steps:

Step 1. Selecting the simple characteristics. Six indicators were selected to illustrate the rural communes’ activity in renewable energy investments: number of projects implemented per capita (PLN) (x₁); value of projects implemented per 100 km² (PLN thousand) (x₂); number of projects implemented in the region by rural communes as a percentage of the total number of projects implemented on a countrywide basis (%) (x₃); value of projects implemented in the region by rural communes as a percentage of the total value of projects implemented on a countrywide basis (%) (x₄); percentage of communes that accessed project financing in the financial perspective 2007–2013 (%) (x₅); and percentage of communes that accessed project financing in the financial perspective 2014–2020 (%) (x₆). The characteristic x₄ was removed from further consideration due to being highly correlated with other simple characteristics.

These indicators were selected because they provide a comprehensive reflection of different aspects of renewable energy investments in rural communes. Variables x₁ and x₂ measure the direct impact of investments on local communities and land management, which is key in communes with a large area. Next, x₃ allows the assessment of rural communes’ contribution to the number and value of projects implemented on a countrywide basis, which is important in analyzing their share in the energy transformation process. In turn, the purpose of x₅ and x₆ is to assess growth rates of investment activities, which allows the telling of how efficiently Union funds are used and what trends they follow.

Step 2. Normalizing the values of simple characteristics. The values of indicators were normalized using the classical standardization formula [80]:

$$z_{ik}={\displaystyle \frac{x_{ik}-{\overline{x}}_k}{s_k}}$$

(1)

where:

• $x_{ik}$—value of characteristic k in object (region) I;
• ${\overline{x}}_k$—arithmetic mean of characteristic k;
• $s_k$—standard deviation of characteristic k.

Step 3. Classification of regions. The regions were classified by the rural communes’ investment activity related to renewable energies. Ward’s method was employed with the Euclidean distance being used as the metric of similarity between regions. The number of classes was determined based on the agglomeration diagram. The main goal of Ward’s method is to minimize the sum of squared deviations within the clusters. Therefore, it is often viewed as one of the most efficient methods for hierarchical clustering as it effectively minimizes variance inside clusters [80,81,82].

Step 4. Describing the identified classes. The identified clusters of regions at similar levels of rural communes’ investment activity related to renewable energies were described with characteristics taken into account in the typological classification (referred to as active characteristics) and with selected indicators of the socioeconomic, financial, and environmental situation of rural communes in each region (referred to as passive characteristics). The non-parametric Wilcoxon test for dependent variables and the Pearson correlation analysis were used in carrying out an in-depth analysis of relations between the rural communes’ investment activity and their socioeconomic, environmental, and financial conditions. The reason for using a non-parametric test is that the characteristics related to accessing EU funds covered by this study do not follow a normal distribution. Hence, the test allowed the checking of the importance of being an experienced beneficiary, i.e., to tell whether the level of EU funds accessed for renewable energy projects in the first perspective had an impact on the amount of financing accessed in the next one. The case study covered selected voivodeships which were home to the most active beneficiaries (communes) of EU aid measures contemplated in this paper.

This type of comprehensive study on the investment activity of rural municipalities in renewable energy sources (RESs), combining a unidimensional assessment of the level and dynamics of investment activity with a multidimensional analysis of regional differences using Ward’s method, has not been conducted before, either in Poland or within the European Union. The literature needs studies that simultaneously consider the specificity of rural areas, regional differences in RES investments, and the socioeconomic conditions of these investments on such a broad scale. This study fills that gap, providing new insights into the investment activity of rural municipalities in Poland and its impact on the energy transition at the local and regional levels.

The diversification of investment activity of municipalities in individual voivodeships was also assessed using an appropriate significance test. The Kruskal–Wallis test and the median test were used for this purpose. They are the equivalent of analysis of variance (ANOVA) for data that do not meet the assumptions of normality or homogeneity of variance. The Kruskal–Wallis test is a non-parametric statistical test used to compare the medians of more than two independent groups concerning one factor. Meanwhile, the median test is used when the goal of the analysis is to assess whether groups differ in central tendency. While these tests indicate significant differences between groups, the use of a post hoc test allows for identifying which specific groups differ from each other. For Kruskal–Wallis, this is the p-value for multiple comparisons based on Dunn’s test, as it is well-suited for rank-based data and widely used in non-parametric analyses [83,84].

4. Results of Empirical Studies

4.1. Assessing Rural Communes’ Investment Activity Compared to Other Administrative Types of Communes

The European Union’s climate policy and the growing costs of conventional energy are certainly what stimulate investments in renewable energies. Poland enjoys favorable conditions for the development of renewables, especially in the agricultural sector (biogas, energy crops) and in rural areas, which offer the largest resources of energy [11]. However, these areas often struggle with interrupted electricity supplies due to obsolescent infrastructure and budget limitations of local government units. Note that local sources of renewable energies could make these regions more energy-stable, thus enhancing their energy security and supporting sustainable agricultural development, which is consistent with the assumptions behind the Rural Development Program (RDP). As Klepacka [85] indicates, the purpose of multiannual rural development schemes is to make farms more competitive and introduce a sustainable model for natural resource management, including making use of renewables.

In the financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020, Polish communes implemented 1163 renewable energy-related projects accounting for a total amount of PLN 4.3 billion (EUR 1.0 billion). In both of these financial perspectives, they were a party to one-quarter of all investments related to renewable energy co-financed with EU funds, which testifies to their importance as a beneficiary group. This accounted for ca. 13% and 29% of the total value of renewable energy projects implemented on a countrywide basis in 2007–2013 and 2014–2020, respectively. In the second financial perspective under consideration, Poland was provided with much more support from the EU, resulting in a reinforced focus on priority areas, such as the development of a low-carbon economy. As a consequence, local government units could increase their activity in that area over the next years. Ultimately, the number of renewable energy investments completed in 2014–2020 was nearly four times that of the previous period. Of all administrative types of communes, rural local government units were the most active beneficiaries in both of the financial perspectives covered by this paper. In 2007–2013, they implemented 140 projects, representing 59% of the countrywide total. Combined, their investments amounted to PLN 453 million (EUR 113 million), i.e., 57% of all commune-level measures. The next perspective saw an increase in activity of all communes, with rural units experiencing the greatest growth rates. Rural communes participated in 631 projects (i.e., 68% of total projects) with a combined value of PLN 2.3 billion (i.e., EUR 0.5 billion, 64% of total value). The fact that rural communes had a prevailing share in the beneficiary group contributed to accelerating the rural shift towards renewable energies (

Table 1. Characteristics of renewable energy projects co-financed with European Union budget funds, as implemented by Polish communes in financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020.

Specification	Communes				Total
	Rural	Urban	Rural-Urban	Urban Districts
Number of Projects
2007–2013	140	28	63	6	237
2014–2020	631	74	172	49	926
Total	771	102	235	55	1163
Percentage of the total number of projects (%)
2007–2013	59.1	11.8	26.6	2.5	100.0
2014–2020	68.1	8.0	18.6	5.3	100.0
Total	62.9	10.8	22.9	3.4	100.0
Project value (PLN million)
2007–2013	453.4	89.7	243.2	5.6	791.9
2014–2020	2266.8	379.4	746.1	141.7	3534.0
Total	2720.2	469.1	989.4	147.3	4325.9
Percentage of total value of projects (%)
2007–2013	57.3	11.3	30.7	0.7	100.0
2014–2020	64.1	10.7	21.1	4.0	100.0
Total	62.9	10.8	22.9	3.4	100.0

Source: authors’ compilation based on data from the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy [77,78].

).

One finding from the analysis of communes that form part of the same group and implemented at least one project is that they became much more effective in accessing Union subsidies between the two perspectives concerned. In 2007–2013, the average effectiveness for all communes was slightly above 7%, and the variation within the sample was quite small. The highest success rate was recorded by urban communes, with nearly 10% of applications being approved. In turn, the smallest success rate (barely 7%) was that of rural communes. In the perspective 2014–2020, renewable energy projects were implemented by as much as 27% of all communes on a countrywide basis. The activity rates were particularly high in urban districts, with one in every three of them running a renewable energy investment. However, rural units were not far behind in that respect. In the second perspective under consideration, urban–rural communes proved to be the least effective, with only one out of five local government units being successful in applying for funds granted to renewable energy projects. It is worth emphasizing that rural units formed the largest group of all communes that accessed support from the EU budget in both the first and the second financial perspective (having a share of 55% in 2007–2013 and 69% in 2014–2020) (Figure 2).

Subsidies accessed by rural communes were mostly allocated to renewable energy: solar power (over PLN 2.7 billion i.e., EUR 0.6 billion, which represented 98% of total subsidies). This included a total of 734 projects, i.e., 98% of all projects. Solar power ventures, next to wind energy projects, were the most capital-intensive ones. The communes often access solar power subsidies because of the ease of installation, smaller environmental barriers, and declining costs of solar panels, which is an important factor for rural communes (as they usually are less wealthy). Also, for many communes, especially those with valuable land, solar power is a more acceptable option for accessing renewable energy than wind turbines, for instance. The second area of interest to Polish communes was hydroelectric, geothermal, and other energy, with ten to twenty projects being implemented in each perspective. In turn, 12 local government units opted for biomass energy investments. This requires uninterrupted access to raw materials, which may pose some logistic difficulties while also giving rise to concern as to the environmental friendliness of that technology. Conversely, the number of wind energy investments was negligible. The fact that potential beneficiaries showed little interest in it could be explained by high investment costs and relatively discouraging atmospheric conditions (except for the Zachodniopomorskie and Pomorskie voivodeships). Furthermore, wind energy investments are hampered by administrative barriers and social concerns about their environmental impact.

4.2. Regional Differences in Rural Communes’ Activity in Renewable Energy Investments

Over the last few decades, the development of renewable energy investments has become one of the key elements of the European Community’s sustainable development policy. Support allocated from the European Union budget to energy transformation measures has contributed to considerable growth in the number of projects implemented, especially at the local government level. The financing allowed local authorities to implement new initiatives that support the development of renewables and the upgrading of their energy infrastructure; this played a key role in energy transformation processes in these regions. The involvement of communes in implementing renewable energy projects differs not only between their administrative types but also between regions. This analysis attempted to assess the regional differences in rural communes’ renewable energy investments carried out in two Union financial perspectives, i.e., in 2007–2013 and 2014–2020.

Both financial perspectives under consideration saw considerable regional differences in the implementation of renewable energy projects. The period 2007–2013 was marked by a clear concentration of these investments in rural communes of the Lubuskie voivodeship (in terms of both numbers and value of projects implemented). These accounted for approximately one-half of all projects implemented by rural communes and for one-half of total investments. Less intensive activity was witnessed in communes of the Podlaskie voivodeship, whereas other voivodeships recorded only a couple of projects in this area. Seven out of the sixteen voivodeships did not implement even a single renewable energy project with the use of Union funds (

Table 2. Renewable energy projects co-financed with EU funds in Polish rural communes grouped by region in financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020.

Specification	Number of Projects			Projects Value (PLN Million)			Project Value Per Capita (PLN)			Project Value Per 100 km2 (PLN Housands)
	2007–2013	2014–2020	Total	2007–2013	2014–2020	Total	2007–2013	2014–2020	Total	2007–2013	2014–2020	Total
Lubelskie	68	227	295	246.2	831.2	1077.4	255.3	871.8	1127.1	1375.8	4876.0	6251.8
Podkarpackie	2	45	47	10.4	345.5	356.0	11.0	439.5	450.5	81.3	3507.9	3589.2
Łódzkie	4	54	58	36.0	153.0	188.9	67.9	222.2	290.1	394.7	1357.9	1752.6
Kujawsko-pomorskie	0	50	50	0.0	54.6	54.6	0.0	87.7	87.7	0.0	614.0	614.0
Mazowieckie	13	24	37	45.8	215.7	261.5	34.9	150.0	184.9	171.9	1105.1	1277.0
Podlaskie	29	77	106	52.0	69.0	121.1	145.3	236.4	381.7	384.1	646.4	1030.5
Wielkopolskie	0	13	13	0.0	91.8	91.8	0.0	122.2	122.2	0.0	751.9	751.9
Małopolskie	7	3	10	13.2	158.2	171.5	17.0	113.1	130.1	146.7	1722.6	1869.3
Świętokrzyskie	0	15	15	0.0	68.5	68.5	0.0	179.2	179.2	0.0	1043.6	1043.6
Zachodniopomorskie	0	2	2	0.0	0.6	0.6	0.0	2.3	2.3	0.0	12.5	12.5
Warmińsko-Mazurskie	0	26	26	0.0	17.1	17.1	0.0	56.6	56.6	0.0	154.1	154.1
Śląskie	4	78	82	20.2	152.8	173.1	36.8	245.1	281.9	364.0	3580.5	3944.4
Opolskie	2	0	2	1.1	0.0	1.1	3.7	0.0	3.7	21.2	0.0	21.2
Lubuskie	0	1	1	0.0	0.4	0.4	0.0	2.4	2.4	0.0	6.8	6.8
Pomorskie	11	14	25	28.3	104.1	132.5	54.7	181.0	235.7	212.9	853.7	1066.6
Dolnośląskie	0	2	2	0.0	4.2	4.2	0.0	2.2	2.2	0.0	443.4	443.4
Rural communes in total	140	631	771	453.4	2266.8	2720.2	53.2	235.6	288.8	278.5	1650.8	1929.3

Source: authors’ compilation based on data from the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy [77,78].

).

In turn, in the 2014–2020 perspective, only one voivodeship (Opolskie) failed to successfully apply for subsidies allocated to renewable energy projects. Other regions, except for the Małopolskie voivodeship, saw a considerable increase in rural local governments’ activity. Interestingly, projects implemented in the Małopolskie voivodeship were in turn the most capital-intensive, with an average cost of over PLN 52 million per project (i.e., EUR 12 million per project). Rural communes of the Lubelskie voivodeship continued to be the leaders in implementing renewable energy projects. However, in view of the general growth in the activity of local government units from other voivodeships, the importance of investments implemented in the Lubelskie voivodeship declined in terms of both the number and the value of projects. As regards the number of projects implemented, the activity rates were particularly high in rural communes of the Śląskie and Podlaskie voivodeships In turn, the Podkarpackie, Mazowieckie, and Śląskie voivodeships were home to the most cost-intensive investments (Table 2).

As the Polish regions differ in size, the value of projects was calculated on a per-capita and per-area basis in order to assess the scale of support they accessed. The analysis of both of these indicators demonstrated that the highest concentration of investment activity related to renewables was witnessed in eastern Poland, especially in the Lubelskie, Podkarpackie, Podlaskie, and Śląskie voivodeships. As regards the Śląskie voivodeship, the intensity of activities can be explained by its highly urbanized yet relatively small area. Conversely, the strong interest in these projects witnessed in eastern Poland could be fueled by these local governments being eligible for funds granted not only under Regional Operational Programs (ROPs) dedicated to the needs of beneficiaries from a specific region but also under the Eastern Poland Program focused on problems faced solely by the Lubelskie, Podlaskie, Podkarpackie, Świętokrzyskie and Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodeships.

In analyzing the activity of communes in each region, it is worth emphasizing that local government units from the Podlaskie and Lubelskie voivodeships demonstrated exceptional efficiency rates, with 32% and 26%, respectively, of their communes being involved in renewable energy projects in 2007–2013. The experience they gained in that period contributed to their efficiency in the next perspective, in which their success factors reached 71% and 89%, respectively. Such great performance ratios testify to local authorities being strongly committed to economic transformation processes based on a long-term development strategy, while also reflecting the important development needs of these regions. In the future, these investments are expected to contribute to improving the economic potential, residential competitiveness, and quality of life in the regions concerned (Figure 3).

What seems interesting is that in the case of a large group of communes, the success in accessing the first Union subsidy for renewable energy projects translated into further achievements in this area. The following communes were leaders in accessing subsidies: Radzyń Podlaski (Lubelskie voivodeship) with nine investments, followed by Wisznice, Goraj, and Jeziorzany (Lubelskie voivodeship), and Przesmyki (Mazowieckie voivodeship), each with five projects. Note that they each implemented at least three renewable energy projects already in the first perspective. Generally, over the study period, a total of 190 local government units implemented more than one project related to renewables. What also needs to be mentioned is that support was granted on a non-repayable basis.

The Kruskal–Wallis test and the median test were used to assess the statistical variation in EU funds acquired by municipalities in individual voivodeships. Both are non-parametric equivalents of one-way analysis of variance, which is used in situations when the assumptions for parametric tests are not met. In the case of the analyzed indicators, the lack of normal distributions of the dependent variable was noted. Based on the test results included in

Table 3. Results of the Kruskall–Wallis test (H) and median test for selected characteristics of rural communes’ activity in renewable energy projects co-financed with EU funds in financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020.

Indicators	H Statistic	p-Value	Median Test	p-Value
Value of projects implemented per capita (PLN) in 2007–2013	227.55	<0.001	228.17	<0.001
Value of projects implemented per capita (PLN) 2014–2020	551.67	<0.001	541.78	<0.001
Value of projects implemented per capita (PLN) 2007–2020	563.45	<0.001	521.92	<0.001
Value of projects implemented per 100 km2 (PLN) in 2007–2013	224.82	<0.001	228.17	<0.001
Value of projects implemented per 100 km2 (PLN) in 2014–2020	524.24	<0.001	541.78	<0.001
Value of projects implemented per 100 km2 (PLN) in 2007–2020	528.64	<0.001	521.92	<0.001

Source: authors’ compilation based on data from [77,78].

, it can be seen that the given test values and the level of test probability allow for the rejection of the null hypothesis (the tested samples come from the same population, or the medians are the same). The analysis results allow for the unequivocal conclusion that the acquisition of EU funds (both in terms of demographic potential and area) was statistically significantly different, considering the location of local governments in the voivodeship. This phenomenon occurred both in each of the studied perspectives and when analyzing them together (Table 3).

Table 4. The results of the test for multiple comparisons for comparing the level of realized investments in RES per capita co-financed by EU funds in 2007–2013 and 2014–2020 ^{(a), (b)}.

Region	04	16	08	02	12	18	28	10	24	30	26	22	14	06	20	01
R-value	1297.8	822.2	795.3	761.1	624.8	1045.4	617.2	580.2	699.1	545.6	713.5	867.1	553.9	537.0	731.3	536.9
04		<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	0.004 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *
16	<0.001 *		1.000	1.000	0.016 *	0.082	0.069	0.004 *	1.000	0.042 *	1.000	1.000	0.221	0.068	1.000	0.002 *
08	<0.001 *	1.000		1.000	0.052	0.009 *	0.202	0.014 *	1.000	0.109	1.000	1.000	0.498	0.165	1.000	0.005 *
02	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000		1.000	0.004 *	1.000	0.387	1.000	0.805	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.979	1.000	0.122
12	<0.001 *	0.016 *	0.052	1.000		<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
18	0.004 *	0.082	0.009 *	0.004 *	<0.001 *		<0.001 *	<0.001 *	0.001 *	<0.001 *	0.001 *	1.000	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	0.001 *	<0.001 *
28	<0.001 *	0.069	0.202	1.000	1.000	<0.001 *		1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.006 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
10	<0.001 *	0.004 *	0.014 *	0.387	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000		1.000	1.000	1.000	0.000 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
24	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.001 *	1.000	1.000		1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
30	<0.001 *	0.042 *	0.109	0.805	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000		1.000	0.006 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
26	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000		1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
22	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.001 *	1.000	0.006 *	<0.001 *	1.000	0.006 *	1.000		0.041 *	0.011 *	1.000	<0.001 *
14	<0.001 *	0.221	0.498	1.000	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.041 *		1.000	1.000	1.000
06	<0.001 *	0.068	0.165	0.979	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.011 *	1.000		1.000	1.000
20	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000		0.703
01	<0.001 *	0.002 *	0.005 *	0.122	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.000 *	1.000	1.000	0.703

^(a) * for p < 0.05. ^(b) Numbering of provinces by TERYT codes: 01—Dolnośląskie, 02—Kujawsko-Pomorskie, 04—Lubelskie, 06—Lubuskie, 08—Łódzkie, 10—Małopolskie, 12—Mazowieckie, 14—Opolskie, 16—Podkarpackie, 18—Podlaskie, 20—Pomorskie, 22—Śląskie, 24—Świętokrzyskie, 26—Warmińsko-Mazurskie, 28—Wielkopolskie, 30—Zachodniopomorskie. Source: authors’ compilation based on data from [77,78].

presents the results of the multiple comparison test for comparing the level of implemented investments in the field of renewable energy per capita co-financed from EU funds in the two financial perspectives examined. The “*” signs indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) between rural communes in individual regions in the scope of implementation of the discussed investments in renewable energy per capita. In the case of implemented projects per capita, it was observed that rural communes from the Podlaskie and Lubelskie voivodeships differ significantly (statistically significantly) compared to rural communes from practically all other regions. This means that the level of support and intensity of investment activities in these voivodeships were higher compared to other regions. Also, in this respect, rural communes from the Śląskie voivodeship stand out in that the scope of the discussed investments statistically significantly differ from a significant part of the remaining regions (including rural communes from the Wielkopolskie, Małopolskie, Zachodnio-Pomorskie, Opolskie, Lubuskie, and Dolnośląskie voivodeships). In the case of the Podlaskie, Małopolskie, and Dolnośląskie voivodeships, statistically significant differences occurred in relation to rural communes from five regions.

In turn,

Table 5. Test results for multiple comparisons for comparing the level of realized RES investments in PLN per 100 km² co-financed from EU funds in 2007–2013 and 2014–2020 ^{(a), (b)}.

Region	04	16	08	02	12	18	28	10	24	30	26	22	14	06	20	01
R-value	1278.8	833.6	800.7	770.0	627.0	993.3	620.3	583.8	703.6	545.8	701.6	907.6	554.2	536.3	722.9	542.6
04		<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	<0.001 *
16	<0.001 *		1.000	1.000	0.008 *	1.000	0.041 *	0.002 *	1.000	0.024 *	1.000	1.000	0.141	0.039 *	1.000	0.001 *
08	<0.001 *	1.000		1.000	0.040 *	0.279	0.176	0.012 *	1.000	0.084	1.000	1.000	0.410	0.127	1.000	0.005 *
02	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000		1.000	0.128	1.000	0.292	1.000	0.574	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.695	1.000	0.103
12	<0.001 *	0.008 *	0.040 *	1.000		<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.000 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
18	<0.001 *	1.000	0.279	0.128	<0.001 *		<0.001 *	<0.001 *	0.020 *	<0.001 *	0.010 *	1.000	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	0.015 *	<0.001 *
28	<0.001 *	0.041 *	0.176	1.000	1.000	<0.001 *		1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.000 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
10	<0.001 *	0.002 *	0.012 *	0.292	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000		1.000	1.000	1.000	0.000 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
24	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.020 *	1.000	1.000		1.000	1.000	0.679	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
30	<0.001 *	0.024 *	0.084	0.574	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000		1.000	0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
26	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.010 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000		0.439	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000
22	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	<0.001 *	<0.001 *	0.679	0.001 *	0.439		0.006 *	0.001 *	0.711	<0.001 *
14	<0.001 *	0.141	0.410	1.000	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.006 *		1.000	1.000	1.000
06	<0.001 *	0.039 *	0.127	0.695	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.001 *	1.000		1.000	1.000
20	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.015 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.711	1.000	1.000		1.000
01	<0.001 *	0.001 *	0.005 *	0.103	1.000	<0.001 *	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	1.000	0.000 *	1.000	1.000	1.000

^(a) * for p < 0.05. ^(b) Numbering of provinces by TERYT codes: 01—Dolnośląskie, 02—Kujawsko-Pomorskie, 04—Lubelskie, 06—Lubuskie, 08—Łódzkie, 10—Małopolskie, 12—Mazowieckie, 14—Opolskie, 16—Podkarpackie, 18—Podlaskie, 20—Pomorskie, 22—Śląskie, 24—Świętokrzyskie, 26—Warmińsko-Mazurskie, 28—Wielkopolskie, 30—Zachodniopomorskie. Source: authors’ compilation based on data from [77,78].

presents the results of the multiple comparison test for comparing the level of implemented investments in renewable energy sources per 100 km². In this case, it was also observed that rural communes from the Podlaskie and Lubelskie voivodeships differ significantly (statistically significantly) from rural communes from practically all other regions. Also, in this respect, rural communes from the Śląskie voivodeship and the Podkarpackie voivodeship stand out. In the scope of the discussed investments, they statistically significantly differ from most remaining regions. Podkarpackie, previously less distinguished in the analysis of investments per capita, was characterized by high investment intensity per unit of area. This suggests that in this region, projects were concentrated in a smaller area, which may be the effect of specific geographical or economic conditions. The results indicate a clear concentration of investments in specific voivodeships, which may result from regional policies, the availability of raw materials for RESs (e.g., biomass in the eastern voivodeships, wind resources in the western voivodeships), and the level of preparation of rural communes for the absorption of EU funds.

The second stage of this study also uses Ward’s method to perform a multidimensional assessment of rural communes’ activity in renewable energy investments co-financed with EU funds (Figure 4). The analysis resulted in identifying six classes of regions similar to one another in terms of the phenomenon concerned. The classes included two singletons corresponding to regions at much higher levels of investment activity related to renewables than the remaining part of the country. The assessment confirmed that investment activity tends to concentrate in eastern Poland, especially in the Lubelskie voivodeship whose rural communes positioned themselves as leaders in terms of both the value and the number of projects implemented.

In the Union’s two financial perspectives (2007–2013 and 2014–2020), rural communes of the Lubelskie voivodeship (class 6) demonstrated extraordinary activity in accessing support from EU funds allocated to renewable energy investments. Ca. 90% of rural communes located there accessed that kind of support. As a result, rural communes of the Lubelskie voivodeship were provided with more than triple the national average amount of funds per capita and per 100 km² of area. They accounted for ca. 40% of the total number and value of renewable energy projects implemented by all Polish communes (

Table 6. Differences between classes of Polish regions in rural communes’ renewable energy investments co-financed with EU funds in 2007–2013 and 2014–2020.

Specification	Typological Class						Total
	I	II	III	IV	V	VI
	Opolskie, Dolnośląskie, Lubuskie, Zachodniopomorskie Voivodeships	Warmińsko-Mazurskie, Kujawsko-Pomorskie Voivodeships	Świętokrzyskie, Wielkopolskie, Małopolskie, Mazowieckie, Pomorskie, Łódzkie Voivodeships	Podlaskie Voivodeship	Śląskie, Podkarpackie Voivodeships	Lubelskie Voivodeship
Renewable Energy Investment Activity (Active Characteristics)
Project value per capita (PLN)	2.2	72.2	164.6	236.4	342.3	871.8	288.8
Project value per 100 km2 (PLN thousand)	16.8	384.1	1171.8	1030.5	3766.8	6251.8	1929.3
Percentage of projects implemented (%)	0.3	4.9	2.6	13.7	8.4	38.3	3.3
Value percentage of projects implemented (%)	0.0	1.3	5.6	4.5	9.7	39.6	3.9
Percentage of communes which implemented projects in 2007–2013 (%)	0.0	0.0	3.1	32.1	3.0	25.5	6.6
Percentage of communes which implemented projects in 2014–2020 (%)	2.6	34.9	14.4	70.5	42.4	89.1	30.1
Socioeconomic (passive) characteristics
Gross domestic product per capita (PLN) a)	66,378.0	61,457.5	78,688.5	59,818.0	70,128.0	55,182.0	66,495.0
Contribution of agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fisheries to value added (%) a)	3.0	4.8	3.0	7.2	1.1	5.5	3.0
Contribution of industrial and construction sectors to value added (%)	39.8	35.5	35.0	30.5	39.2	28.6	35.6
Economic operators per 1000 working-age population	184.0	153.0	169.3	125.8	150.5	132.4	163.6
Economic operators with more than 49 employees per 10,000 population	3.3	3.7	3.4	2.6	3.4	2.1	3.3
Population density (per km2)	45.4	41.3	59.8	23.0	102.1	45.9	55.7
Total migration balance per 1000 population between 2007 and 2022	50.4	25.3	39.5	−19.9	27.5	−6.9	39.5
Post-working-age population per 100 pre-working-age population	100.2	92.9	89.9	119.8	103.2	113.9	99.0
Beds in accommodation facilities per 10,000 population	202.9	221.3	110.4	163.5	157.6	92.3	128.8
Own incomes per capita (PLN)	3682.7	3023.4	3178.4	2951.5	2674.7	2361.8	3054.0
Share of own incomes in total incomes (%)	49.4	40.1	42.5	38.6	40.2	34.5	42.4
Share of councilors at tertiary education levels (%) a)	52.0	46.6	47.9	42.2	51.7	39.9	48.5
Share of agricultural land in total area (%)	55.9	60.6	65.5	60.4	55.0	70.8	61.7
Share of developed and urbanized land in total land (%)	4.1	3.5	4.1	3.1	5.3	3.2	3.9
Forest coverage ratio (%)	29.7	28.7	28.2	32.1	37.3	23.9	29.5
Average farm size (ha)	22.8	23.5	10.1	16.5	7.5	9.6	16.5
Agricultural employees per 100 working-age population	17.9	24.1	31.0	57.3	23.8	52.6	24.6

^a) Data for regions as a whole; other socio-economic characteristics for rural areas within the regions. Source: authors’ compilation based on data from [77,78].

).

Compared to the rest of the country, the Lubelskie voivodeship demonstrates lower levels of socioeconomic development, with agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fisheries having a high share of GDP (in 2021, that rate was three times higher than the nationwide average figure of 2.1%), and an elevated share of agricultural employment (19.8% vs. 7.7% for Poland as a whole) [86]. Its rural communes also report a negative migration balance, aging population problems, and low development levels of entrepreneurship. At the same time, the region has low urbanization rates and great availability of agricultural and forest land, which is conducive to renewable energy installations. It also enjoys a relatively large number of sunny days, which provides a rationale for photovoltaic investments. Unlike in more industrialized regions, such as the Śląskie voivodeship, its rural communes have not been home to heavy industry and traditional energy installations. This enabled adopting a more open approach to new sources of power and making efficient use of Union funds. Although being at lower development levels and dealing with adverse demographic trends, the Lubuskie voivodeship offers favorable natural conditions for developing certain forms of renewable energy, especially photovoltaics because of a relatively large number of sunny days. Because of having many protected areas, landscape parks, and natural reserves, it is strongly focused on environmental protection, which could have a positive impact on how local authorities approach the development of renewable energy projects.

The Podlaskie voivodeship was classified as a (second) separate singleton (class 4). Its rural communes were highly active in applying for Union funds allocated to renewable energy projects. In 2007–2013, ca. one-third of its rural communes were provided with financial support from the European Union; in 2014–2020, that share grew to exceed two-thirds. Despite being quite numerous (accounting for ca. 14% of all projects on a countrywide basis), projects implemented in that region represented a relatively small value (barely 4.5% of the total amount). As a result, the indicators of support accessed per capita and per area were below the Polish average level for rural communes (Table 6).

There are a couple of key factors that might explain the relatively small value of funds accessed in the Podlaskie voivodeship for renewable energy projects. Just like other eastern Poland areas, the region demonstrated lower levels of economic development than the western or central parts of the country. Heavy depopulation of its rural communes combined with its agricultural nature only add to the financial restrictions faced by these units. The number of agricultural employees per 100 working-age population in the region is 57 (much in excess of the national average of 25). Moreover, the voivodeship reports the country’s highest share of agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fisheries in economic value added (over 7%) [86,87] (Table 6).

This situation affects the budgets of rural communes, resulting in smaller incomes combined with restricted financial autonomy and investment potential [88]. Hence, the region’s rural communes deal with limited financial resources, making it difficult for them to provide the own-contribution required for implementing projects co-financed with EU funds. As a consequence, they can often apply for smaller amounts of money, translating into lower value of projects they implement. In the long run, they are also likely to face difficulties in maintaining their renewable energy infrastructure, which could prompt local authorities to exercise caution in applying for greater amounts that involve higher operating costs. The Podlaskie region also demonstrates specific geographic conditions. A smaller population density (57 persons per sq. km) and fragmented agricultural and forest land may hamper the implementation of certain renewable energy investments, especially due to the underdeveloped industrial and power supply infrastructure. Compared to more developed regions, such as Pomerania or Greater Poland, the Podlaskie voivodeship also has a smaller wind potential [86]. Furthermore, the absence of strong centralized investors in renewable energies, in both the public and private sectors, could slow down the development of renewable-based industries in that region.

Class 5 consisted of the Śląskie and Podkarpackie voivodeships and their rural communes exhibited high levels of investment activity in the area of renewable energy projects. In the financial perspective 2007–2013, their activity rate was quite small (ca. 3%), but grew considerably between 2014 and 2020, ultimately exceeding 42%. Rural communes in these regions recorded high amounts of support accessed per 100 km² and jointly accounted for nearly one-fifth of the countrywide total value of renewable energy projects implemented by rural communes (Table 6).

Although rural communes of the Śląskie and Podkarpackie voivodeships were at similar levels of investment activities, these regions significantly differ from one another in terms of economic development and environmental problems. The Śląskie voivodeship is one of the most industrialized parts of the Polish territory and has the highest level of carbon emissions on both per area and per capita bases [89]. These emissions mostly come from environmentally burdensome industrial plants, which hold a prevailing share in the region’s economic structure. An extremely high population density combined with high entrepreneurship levels contributes to the relative wealth of rural communes of the Śląskie voivodeship while also having a positive effect on their high GDP. The local government units playing an active role in investments supporting the energy transformation (including renewable energy) is a tremendous advantage, especially in a region with such severe pollution emissions.

In turn, the Podkarpackie voivodeship, part of eastern Poland, demonstrates lower levels of enterprise, population density, and urbanization, which is partly related to it being a mountainous region. Despite its lower economic development, the region was eligible for funds offered under the European Union’s structural and regional programs, such as the Infrastructure and Environment Operational Program and Regional Operational Programs, which enabled intense growth in renewable energy investments. Due to its favorable agricultural and forestry conditions, the Podkarpackie voivodeship has a strong biomass potential, which encourages investment in biogas and other installations based on renewable sources of biomass. Also, its hilly areas with numerous rivers and streams form advantageous conditions for the development of small hydropower plants which represent a major component of the local renewable energy system. The region additionally witnesses rapid development of rural tourism [90] driven by many protected areas and national and landscape parks. Thus, local authorities can promote the development of renewables as a way of sustainable development that combines environmental protection with preserving the region’s natural values. Polish regulations allow the location of renewable energy installations within Natura 2000 areas but under specific conditions. According to the Nature Conservation Act, these areas are subject to restrictions aimed at protecting natural habitats and species of plants and animals. Each planned investment must undergo an environmental impact assessment to ensure that it does not adversely affect the conservation objectives of the designated area [91].

Outstandingly low activity levels in renewable energy projects co-financed with EU funds were recorded in rural communes of the Warmińsko–Mazurskie and Kujawsko–Pomorskie voivodeships (class 2). They did not access any project funds in the financial perspective 2007–2013 but became active in the next one (2014–2020). As a consequence, one-third of them engaged in implementing projects covered by this analysis. Combined, they accessed funds for almost one-tenth of the total number of projects implemented by rural communes on a countrywide basis. However, these were ventures of a relatively small value, not in excess of 3% of what was implemented by all rural communes across the country. As a consequence, the value of their renewable energy projects fell much below the average level for Polish rural communes.

Rural communes of the Warmińsko–Mazurskie and Kujawsko–Pomorskie voivodeships exhibited low activity levels in renewable energy projects co-financed with European Union funds. In the financial perspective 2007–2013, they did not access any funds for renewable energy projects. An increase in their activity was only witnessed in the next perspective (2014–2020), resulting in projects being implemented by approximately one-third of them. Although rural communes in these regions accounted for nearly one-tenth of the total number of projects implemented by rural communes on a countrywide basis, the value of these projects was relatively small and did not exceed 3% of the total value of renewable energy ventures handled by Polish rural communes. As a consequence, the value of their projects, on both per capita and per area bases, was much below the average level recorded by rural communes across the country (Table 6). Due to agriculture having a prevailing share in the regional economy, these communes often focus their measures on that very sector. Hence, in addition to building the essential infrastructure (e.g., water distribution and road networks), they also support farmers by partly exempting them from agricultural taxes (a component of the commune-level local fiscal system). This can explain their being less active in implementing renewable energy projects. More than 87% of agricultural land in the Kuyavia region is arable land, which translates into high levels of farming efficiency, especially as regards production of cereals, sugar beet, and rape. In turn, the Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodeship is dominated by animal husbandry and by large forest and agricultural areas, which also affects the region’s investment particularities. However, local agriculture also offers potential for the future development of renewable energy, especially biomass, biogas, and agrivoltaics. Greater awareness of benefits derived from renewables, especially in the agricultural context, can contribute to a stronger commitment to renewable energy projects in the years to come.

The smallest investment activity related to renewable energy projects was witnessed in rural communes from the Opolskie, Dolnośląskie, Lubuskie, and Zachodniopomorskie voivodeships, which formed class 1. In the first financial perspective (2007–2013), except for some minor measures undertaken in the Opolskie voivodeship, none of the rural communes located in the regions listed above-accessed support for renewable energy projects. In the next perspective (2014–2020), there was only a small improvement in that respect (Table 6). The Opolskie voivodeship seems to really stand apart, as its rural communes did not implement even a single renewable energy investment co-financed with EU funds. Conversely, the Dolnośląskie voivodeship is at an outstanding level of development compared to other members of that class. It is among Poland’s most urbanized areas, with cities such as Wrocław playing a dominant role and having a strong impact on the region’s economic and social structure. High urbanization levels may lead to smaller interest in renewable energy investments in rural areas which represent a minority and are often not covered by regional investment priorities. Additionally, unlike other regions, Lower Silesia has not developed a strong tradition of renewable energy investments because of being historically related to coal-based heavy industry and energy systems. This may delay its process of adapting to new technologies related to renewables. Also, in such a region, shifting to state-of-the-art energies may be met with less support from local authorities and society.

4.3. Analysis of Correlations Between Socioeconomic, Financial, and Environmental Factors and EU-Funded Renewable Energy Investments in Rural Communes of Selected Regions

The empirical study described in Section 4.2 demonstrated that rural communes located in two regions (the Lubelskie and Podlaskie voivodeships) played an important role in local renewable energy projects. In 2007–2013, these regions recorded the highest percentage of rural communes engaged in projects co-financed with European Union funds. On top of that, they also witnessed the greatest growth in that ratio in the next financial perspective. The analysis covered the conditions of activity of rural communes in the Lubelskie and Podlaskie voivodeships and compared them against the countrywide context. The purpose of this was to tell whether the rural communes’ previous experience in accessing Union funds in 2007–2013 had an impact on their investment activity in the 2014–2020 perspective. The Wilcoxon matched-pairs test was used in order to check the significance of the dependent variable for two points in time. The results, as shown in

Table 7. Results of the Wilcoxon test for selected characteristics of rural communes’ activity in renewable energy projects co-financed with EU funds in financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020.

Specification	Value of Projects Implemented Per Capita (PLN) in 2007–2013 vs. 2014–2020		Value of Projects Implemented Per 100 km2 (PLN) in 2007–2013 vs. 2014–2020
	Z Statistic	p-Value	Z Statistic	p-Value
Total rural communes	14.16	<0.001	14.38	<0.001
Rural communes in the Lubelske voivodeship	7.65	<0.001	7.38	<0.001
Rural communes in the Podlaskie voivodeship	3.06	<0.001	3.03	<0.001

Source: authors’ compilation based on data from [77,78].

, are specified both for rural communes on a countrywide basis and for rural communes located in the Lubelskie and Podlaskie voivodeships. The results showed that having accessed a subsidy in 2007–2013 had a statistically significant positive impact on the absorption of funds in 2014–2020 by rural communes in both regions under consideration. This was reflected in the value of projects implemented per capita and per area (Table 7).

The study found some differences in how certain socioeconomic conditions impact the rural communes’ activity in renewable energy investments co-financed with EU funds, both at the country level and in the Lubelskie voivodeship, the region which proved to be the most active in that regard (

Table 8. Pearson linear correlation coefficients between investment activity related to renewable energy projects co-financed with EU funds and selected conditions ^(a) in financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020.

Specification	Value of Projects Implemented Per Capita (PLN)			Value of Projects Implemented Per 100 km2 (PLN)
	Total Rural Communes	Rural Communes in the Lubelske Voivodeship	Rural Communes in the Podlaskie Voivodeship	Total Rural Communes	Rural Communes in the Lubelske Voivodeship	Rural Communes in the Podlaskie Voivodeship
Population density (per km2)	−0.051 *	0.083	−0.164	0.111 *	0.360 *	−0.053
Post-working-age population per 100 pre-working-age population (%)	0.111 *	−0.139	0.227 *	−0.009	−0.241 *	−0.049
Migration balance per 1000 population	−0.082 *	−0.006	−0.142	0.035	0.313 *	−0.146
Entities entered into the REGON (National Business Register) per 10 thousand population	−0.152 *	0.049	−0.168	−0.044	0.201 *	−0.183
Dwellings per 1000 population	0.053 *	−0.169 *	0.110	−0.038	−0.241 *	−0.166
Share of population served by water supply (%)	−0.046	0.182 *	0.065	−0.040	0.111	0.006
Share of population served by sewerage network (%)	−0.088 *	0.177 *	0.006	−0.034	0.051	−0.088
Share of population served by gas network (%)	−0.033	−0.021	−0.129	0.098 *	0.253 *	−0.134
Unemployment rate (%)	0.023	−0.167 *	−0.208	−0.046	−0.308 *	−0.260 *
Share of councilors at tertiary education levels (%)	−0.095 *	−0.039	−0.164	−0.020	0.087	−0.203
Agricultural employees per 100 working-age population	0.262 *	0.104	0.080	0.076 *	−0.124	−0.057
Beds in accommodation facilities per 10,000 population	−0.030	−0.022	−0.071	−0.024	−0.015	−0.162
Share of farms no smaller than 15 ha (%)	−0.140 *	−0.168 *	0.032	−0.158 *	−0.255 *	0.129
Share of agricultural land in total area (%)	−0.004	−0.166 *	−0.098	−0.069 *	−0.141	−0.073
Forest coverage ratio (%)	−0.054 *	0.017	0.001	−0.101 *	−0.167 *	−0.132
Share of developed and urbanized land (%)	−0.113 *	−0.117	−0.051	−0.080 *	−0.033	−0.139
Own income potential per capita (PLN)	−0.069 *	−0.051	0.199	−0.049	−0.032	−0.080
Per capita income derived from income taxes (PLN)	−0.051 *	−0.026	0.068	−0.032	−0.148	−0.096
Share of own incomes in total incomes (%)	−0.151 *	−0.104	0.048	−0.067 *	0.088	−0.135
Investment potential per capita	0.021	−0.008	0.088	0.013	−0.110	0.039
Total liabilities per capita (PLN)	0.002	0.056	0.246 *	0.014	0.075	0.082
Share of total liabilities in total incomes (%)	−0.020	0.030	0.193	0.005	0.086	0.079

^(a) * for p < 0.05. Source: authors’ compilation based on data from [9,77,78].

). The different axes of socioeconomic impacts suggest that the communes’ renewable energy investment activity depends on local conditions. In the Lubelskie voivodeship, they may have different effects than in other regions, which emphasizes the importance of regional development strategies for renewable energies.

As regards rural communes on a countrywide basis, there was a negative correlation between population density and migration balance, on the one side, and investment activity, on the other (Table 8). This could suggest that rural communes with a smaller demographic potential (often being agricultural) are the ones more inclined to invest in renewables. For communes with a low population density (which traditionally rely on agriculture), such investments may represent an alternative development path. The introduction of renewable energy technologies may diversify the local economy, making it independent from the seasonality and volatility of agricultural incomes. Also, in those communes, the development of renewable energy infrastructure may create new jobs and attract relevant specialists, which could partly counteract the migration of young people to cities.

In turn, rural communes of the Lubelskie voivodeship witnessed a positive correlation between population density, migration balance, and the entities entered into the REGON (National Business Register) per 10,000 population, on the one side, and the value of renewable energy projects implemented per square kilometer, on the other (Table 8). A higher population density also means greater demand for electricity, which stimulates local authorities to invest in renewables in order to address growing energy needs. A positive migration balance suggests these communes are attractive places to live and offer favorable economic and social conditions. New residents might be interested in accessing green energy solutions, which has an impact on the local government’s decisions on whether or not to invest in renewables. Also, a positive correlation with migration could suggest that communes that attract residents have a more dynamic economy and thus encourage investments, including in renewable energy. Communes with a larger population can better mobilize the community to support green initiatives and make a more efficient use of available resources in implementing renewable energy projects. In turn, a greater number of economic operators based in the commune is conducive to the development of renewables because they can also act as local investors who initiate renewable energy projects or support local government units in implementing them.

Conversely, a negative and statistically significant correlation was found between the unemployment rate and the share of larger farms in the total number of agricultural holdings, on the one side, and the number of renewable energy projects implemented by rural communes in the Lubelskie voivodeship, on the other (Table 8). Rural communes with higher unemployment rates can view renewable energy investments as an opportunity for creating jobs and driving local development. Renewable energy projects can offer jobs at both the construction and maintenance stages, which is of particular importance to regions struggling with high unemployment. Higher unemployment can encourage communes to access available Union funds for the development of renewables as a form of support and an alternative economic path. Renewable energy subsidies and payments can be viewed as a tool for fighting unemployment and stimulating the local economy.

An interesting finding from this research is the absence of correlation between the level of human capital (measured as the percent of the population having a tertiary education) and the rural communes’ activity in implementing renewable energy projects co-financed with EU funds, at both the national and regional levels. The higher education levels of rural councilors may not necessarily have a direct impact on their increased activity in accessing funds for and implementing renewable energy investments. Other factors, such as the availability of funds, technical support, or local policies, can be of greater importance. The engagement of communes in renewable energy projects can depend on other aspects, such as the local authorities’ motivation or local environmental awareness. Other studies, however, have indicated that, when focusing exclusively on the 2014–2020 financial perspective, human capital positively influenced the likelihood of rural communes securing EU co-financed investments of this type [72].

5. Discussion

In analyzing the energy transformation process and the role the communes play in it, it is particularly important to take account of local- and regional-level measures, especially in rural areas. To achieve the aim of the study, research methods were employed that, although widely known, are rarely used in this field of research.

As demonstrated by this study, Polish rural communes, especially in the Lubelskie and Podlaskie voivodeships, derived considerable benefits from Union funds, which allowed them to implement a number of renewable energy projects, related in particular to solar power. These investments made them more energy-self-reliant while also supporting local economic development. However, the Polish context is not unique in this regard.

Internationally, the experiences of other countries demonstrate similar patterns and challenges. For instance, in Germany and Denmark, Union funds have also been instrumental in driving renewable energy adoption, with energy cooperatives and interregional collaboration playing a pivotal role [92]. In addition to being more transparent, such management models are also more participative, making them more accepted by the local community [93]. The cooperatives empower the rural communities to derive direct and greater benefits from energy production, unlike it is the case for traditional investment models where profits are reaped by external investors [94]. Such initiatives have also been successfully implemented in Spain, the United Kingdom, and other European countries [95,96,97].

Energy cooperatives, which play a key role in the development of renewable energy sources (RESs) in many EU countries, have been specifically defined in EU legislation. According to Directive (EU) 2018/2001 of the European Parliament and the Council (RED II), Renewable Energy Communities (RECs) [98] are defined as legal entities based on open and voluntary participation, operating autonomously and controlled by local shareholders or members, such as individuals, local authorities, or small enterprises located near the RES projects developed by the community (Article 2, point 16).

Additionally, Directive (EU) 2019/944 of the European Parliament and the Council on common rules for the internal market for electricity introduces the concept of Citizen Energy Communities (CEC), which include legal entities aimed at providing environmental, economic, or social benefits to their members and local communities rather than prioritizing profit (Article 2, point 11) [99].

In Poland, the definition of energy cooperatives has been implemented in the Act of 20 February 2015, on Renewable Energy Sources (Journal of Laws 2015, item 478) [100], enabling the effective integration of EU regulations into the national legal framework. These legal provisions support local initiatives’ development, fostering energy independence and sustainable development.

At the international level, Germany is viewed as the pioneer in transforming the energy system towards an increasingly greater share of renewables [101,102]. However, currently, it slightly lags behind the international standards and was ranked only 16th in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) in 2023 (vs. 13th in 2022). In Germany, especially in its rural areas such as Bavaria and Saxony, communes played a considerable role in promoting renewable energies, in particular in the context of Energiewende (energy transformation). Rural communes supported the development of solar and wind energy installations while also organizing local energy cooperatives which allowed their residents to take direct part in renewable energy investments. The key aspect of the German energy transformation was the decentralization of the energy market with a view to driving the engagement of smaller, diversified energy suppliers in addition to traditional energy giants. Despite the expected drop in costs, German electricity prices continue to be among the highest in Europe. This can be explained by different factors, such as infrastructural investments, renewable energy subsidies, and climate protection fees [38,103].

Examples of how rural communes can make effective use of renewables include the Spanish region of Aragon, where rural communes such as Campo de Belchite actively support the development of wind farms. They manage the process of wind farm installation, which leads to the creation of new jobs and drives revenue streams from land leases. Thanks to such investments, local communities can tap into additional economic benefits offered by the energy transformation process. However, they also need to face some challenges, such as landscape degradation and local opposition to certain projects [2]. Indeed, as revealed by surveys carried out in that region, local communities have mixed feelings about the impact of renewables on the economy and employment. Nevertheless, the local administration plays a key role in managing those projects and includes the residents in decision-making processes, which encourages social acceptance [21]. In Spain, just like in Poland, there are significant differences in renewable energy investments between regions. For instance, regions such as Andalusia and Castilla–La Mancha are leaders in solar and wind power thanks to favorable geographic conditions but also due to adequate strategies and political support. However, other Spanish regions are less developed in terms of renewable energies because of smaller political and financial backups.

In turn, British rural communes engage in renewable energy development by supporting social energy projects. Examples include programs where local communities set up energy groups and jointly invest in photovoltaic or wind installations [93]. In addition to supporting these initiatives, local authorities provide technical and administrative support which enables a more efficient implementation of such projects in rural areas [104].

Despite rural communes being strongly involved in energy transformation, it needs to be noted that Poland faces a series of important barriers that hamper the development of renewable energies, especially when it comes to photovoltaics and wind power. One of the most severe blockers is the lack of a stable, foreseeable government policy for the renewable energy sector, including the sluggish shift away from coal energy. Things can get even more difficult because of the high implementation costs of renewable investments and due to complicated, time-consuming formal and legal procedures. Obstacles to the development of these technologies also include the investors’ limited financial capacity, high interest rates, and insufficient legislative support which can be complicated and time-consuming and sometimes restricts the ability to implement new projects. To alleviate these barriers, it is necessary to introduce more favorable legal regulations, which would accelerate the grant of construction permits for renewable energy installations, and to launch support measures designed to reduce the cost of green energy investments.

Rural communes play a key role in developing and financing renewable energy investments in many European countries. Their commitment is not restricted to providing financial support but also includes organizing local communities, managing the respective projects, and ensuring that the development of renewables brings local-level benefits. However, making sure that the benefits are distributed evenly and that renewable energy projects meet with social acceptance (which, in the long run, can contribute to durable rural development and sustainable energy transformation) continues to be the key challenge.

6. Conclusions

This empirical study enabled an assessment of rural municipalities’ role in Poland’s energy transition process, focusing on regional differences in the development of RES investments funded by EU resources. Even though the literature on the subject includes studies on Polish investments in RESs, none addresses all rural communes, and none compares the regional differences in scale, efficiency, and investments between two successive EU financial perspectives. In this context, the presented findings address a research gap in the literature regarding rural municipalities’ role in developing renewable energy sources as part of the energy transition process. The study takes account of rural particularities and highlights (1) the level of rural communes’ investment activity related to renewable energy development; (2) differences in the scale of renewable energy investments between regions; and (3) socioeconomic conditions of rural communes’ investment activity related to renewable energies in regions which demonstrate the greatest activity in that area.

Over the last decades, renewable energy investments have become the driver of sustainable development in the European Union, especially at the local level. Financing provided by the Union enabled local government units to implement renewable energy projects and upgrade their energy infrastructure, thus contributing to the Polish energy transformation process. In 2007–2020, Polish communes implemented more than one thousand renewable energy projects amounting to a total of PLN 4.3 billion. This was made possible by EU financial support as a consequence of which communes became important beneficiaries of energy transformation funds. Projects run by communes accounted for ca. one-quarter of all renewable investments co-financed by the EU on a countrywide basis, which reflects the considerable engagement of local authorities in measures designed to promote sustainable development. There were significant differences in levels of investment activity between financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. The latter witnessed a nearly four-fold increase in the number of projects implemented, which was caused by reinforced support for low-emission measures.

Rural communes stood out as the most active beneficiaries as they implemented most of the projects in each of the perspectives considered. In 2007–2013, they completed 140 projects, which accounted for 59% of all commune-level investments. In 2014–2020, that number grew to 631 projects, representing 68% and 64% of the total number and value of projects, respectively. The dominant share of solar power projects can be explained by lower investment costs, smaller environmental barriers, and greater social acceptance, which was particularly important in the context of rural communities.

The analysis of how the projects differ between regions shows that eastern Poland voivodeships, such as Lubelskie and Podlaskie, demonstrated outstanding efficiency in accessing Union funds, which enabled the implementation of more renewable energy projects in these regions. In 2007–2013, communes of the Podlaskie and Lubelskie voivodeships reached a success ratio of 32% and 26%, respectively, but recorded a significant improvement in the next perspective, moving to 71% and 89%. The analysis showed that rural municipalities from the Podlaskie and Lubusz voivodeships statistically significantly differed regarding renewable energy investments per capita and per square km compared to most other regions. Municipalities from the Silesian voivodeship also achieved significantly better results, surpassing municipalities from regions such as Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, West Pomerania, Opole, Lubusz, and Lower Silesia. This testifies to them being capable of implementing long-term development strategies underpinned by sustainable energy, which has a beneficial effect on their economic competitiveness, residential attractiveness, and the population’s quality of life. Energy projects were mostly focused on solar power, which reflects its ease of installation and relatively low costs (a matter of particular importance to less wealthy communes). Investments in other energies, such as wind power, were less popular because of higher costs and social and environmental concerns. In turn, while biomass sparked some interest, it required more complex logistic processes involved in raw material supply.

In the Union’s two successive financial perspectives (2007–2013 and 2014–2020), rural communes of the Lubelskie voivodeship stood out as being particularly active in accessing support from EU funds allocated to renewable energy investments. Nearly 90% of communes in that region accessed support, which allowed them to implement numerous renewable energy projects. Funds granted to them accounted for ca. 40% of the number and value of all renewable energy projects implemented by rural communes in Poland. Conversely, relatively low levels of engagement in renewable energy projects co-financed with EU funds were recorded in rural communes of the Warmińsko–Mazurskie and Kujawsko–Pomorskie voivodeships. In the financial perspective 2007–2013, they did not implement any projects, and only one-third of them launched a renewable energy investment in 2014–2020. Despite the increase in activity witnessed in the second period, the total value of projects implemented in both voivodeships was small, standing at barely 3% of the total amount of renewable energy projects implemented by Polish rural communes. It follows from the above that the value of projects in these regions was far behind the national average level, which suggests that their investments had a restricted effect on energy transformation processes at the local level.

The study found that demographic and economic factors were associated with differences in the rural communes’ investment activity in the area of renewable energies. At the countrywide level, there was a negative correlation between population density and migration balance, on the one side, and the communes’ renewable energy investment activity, on the other. This suggests that communes with a smaller demographic potential, especially those with a prevailing share of agriculture, more often commit themselves to the development of renewables. In turn, the Lubelskie voivodeship witnessed a positive correlation between population density, migration balance, and the number of economic operators, on the one side, and the value of renewable energy projects, on the other. Densely populated communes with a growing demand for electricity may be more inclined to invest in renewable energies in order to meet local needs. Furthermore, a positive migration balance and a greater number of economic operators encourage the development of such projects, which suggests that rural communes with a more dynamic economy are more effective in how they mobilize the community and resources to implement renewable energy projects. Also, in regions at higher unemployment levels, renewable energy investments may play a role in stimulating the economy and counteracting unemployment. These communes more willingly access Union funds and consider renewables to be an alternative path to economic development. Although it may come as a surprise, this study did not reveal any correlation between human capital levels (measured as the percent of the population having a tertiary education) and renewable energy investments. This may suggest that other factors, such as the availability of funds and technical support, may have a stronger association with the communes’ activity in implementing energy-related projects.

There is a need for continued support for and intensification of renewable energy investments to enable the attainment of defined climate neutrality goals. These investments are key because they help counteract climate change which is a matter of particular importance to agricultural areas. Also, for rural communes, this is a way of reducing energy costs, which has a favorable effect on their financial stability while also supporting the local economy. Ultimately, it can contribute to economic development in the region concerned.

The study emphasizes the important role of rural local government units as energy transformation leaders. Designing new strategies to support rural communes in coordinating renewable energy projects may contribute to a more efficient pursuit of climate goals and to increase energy self-reliance at the local level. Due to the success of rural communes from the Lubelskie and Podlaskie voivodeships, the policies designed to support the sharing of knowledge and experience between regions may contribute to increasing the efficiency of renewable energy measures in less active regions. Finally, co-financing for partner programs could make it easier for rural communes to implement successful practices used in other regions.

The conclusions presented in this study pertain to Poland; however, some may have universal applicability. Although the geographical, socioeconomic, and political conditions of different countries vary, many challenges related to renewable energy sources (RESs) are shared. These include, for instance, the need to design policies that support the development of renewable energy at the local level. Additionally, actions such as knowledge-sharing between regions, strengthening partnerships, and developing local strategies to support energy transition are important. These approaches can enhance the effectiveness of implemented solutions and contribute to sustainable development across various EU countries.

The experiences of Polish rural municipalities in the field of low-emission economy can provide valuable insights for rural local governments in other EU member states. Eastern European countries such as Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary face similar challenges, including infrastructure modernization and limited capacity to absorb EU funds. Similarly, Southern European regions, such as Southern France, Spain, and Portugal, could benefit from these experiences, particularly in improving the efficiency of using EU funds for low-emission projects.

The empirical study was based on data available for 2007–2020, which limits the ability to address the latest trends and policy changes regarding RESs, particularly within the framework of the new EU financial perspective for 2021–2027. The conclusions drawn were based on observed correlational relationships, which indicate potential determinants of rural municipalities’ investment activity in RESs. These findings require further investigation using advanced statistical models to confirm their causal nature.

While the benefits associated with RES investments were identified, the study did not include a detailed analysis of the long-term effects of these investments, such as the sustainability of projects or their impact on local communities after financial support ends. The data used in the research were primarily sourced from public databases and reports, which limited insight into more specific information, such as residents’ or local decision-makers’ opinions on RES investments.

In the next phases of research, particular emphasis will be placed on incorporating the latest trends and policies in the RES sector emerging from the new EU financial perspective. The analysis will also include data from this period, enabling an update of the conclusions and an evaluation of the current progress in energy transformation. The planned research will focus on analyzing the sustainability of RES projects and their impact on local communities after the financial support has ended. Special attention will be given to identifying factors that promote the durability of these investments, such as local engagement, access to resources, and institutional support.