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Article

Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Miliary University of Technology, Street Gen. Sylwester Kaliski 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2024, 17(5), 1018; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018
Submission received: 12 January 2024 / Revised: 12 February 2024 / Accepted: 20 February 2024 / Published: 21 February 2024

Abstract

:
The research provides a comparative theoretical investigation of the operational characteristics of an electric semi-truck and vehicles powered by conventional combustion engines using diesel fuel, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), and methane (including biomethane) in the dual fuel configuration. The Volvo tractor units that are offered for retail in 2024, namely the Volvo FH Electric, Volvo FH500 in dual fuel configuration, and Volvo FH500TC Diesel Euro VI, were chosen for comparison. The considerations encompassed include the road tractor’s mass, energy usage, power-to-weight ratio, dynamics, ability to recharge or refuel, payload restrictions, impact on logistics expenses, compliance with regulations on drivers’ working hours, and a report on carbon dioxide emissions. The study concludes by discussing and drawing conclusions on the competitiveness of different drive types in truck tractors, specifically in relation to identifying the most suitable areas of application. Synthetic conclusions demonstrate the high effectiveness of the electric drive in urban and suburban conditions. However, vehicles equipped with internal combustion engines using renewable fuels fill the gap in energy-intensive drives in long-distance transport.

1. Introduction

1.1. General Context and Market Situation

Road freight transport is a significant contributor to the economy and a crucial component of both internal and international trade in Europe and beyond [1]. Poland is the top performer in the road transport sector within the European Union (EU), accounting for 19.8% of the total ton-kilometers (TKM) in the EU, surpassing Germany (16.0%) and Spain (14.1%) [2], as illustrated in Figure 1 below.
In 2022, the European Union had a total of 6.2 million transport trucks in operation [3]. Considering the size and importance of this industry in the economy, it is crucial to make appropriate arrangements for the upcoming changes.
The transport industry in the EU is currently experiencing a dynamic process of transitioning vehicle propulsion sources. The adoption of hybridization and electrification in the passenger car industry is becoming a reality, as indicated by the consistent growth in the percentage of vehicles with these types of propulsion in new car sales, as depicted in Figure 2 below.

1.2. Motivation and Research Gap

As depicted in Figure 2, there is a significant push to decrease CO2 emissions and replace traditional internal combustion engines (ICE) with more environmentally friendly alternatives such as hybridization and electrification. However, in the context of long-distance heavy road transport (as well as in the sea and air transport sectors), there are still issues with energy consumption and the limited potential to replace hydrocarbon fuels [4]. This situation entails a clash between the necessity to protect the environment and the practical constraints imposed by economic considerations necessary for preparations for the forthcoming changes.
The heavy-duty transport market has adopted electric vehicles (EV) and vehicles using alternative fuels, such as biomethane or hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), in order to align with sustainable development and mitigate climate change by reducing CO2 emissions. The European Parliament has officially supported a position on the European Union’s proposed legislation for reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from Heavy-Duty Vehicles. Parliament emphasized the importance of CO2-neutral fuels in the overall climate plan. Enacted on 21 October 2023, this stance mandates the European Commission to compile a comprehensive inventory of lorries, buses, and trailers that solely run on CO2-neutral fuels. While the details are not explicitly stated, it is suggested that these vehicles will help manufacturers achieve their obligatory targets for reducing carbon emissions: a 45% decrease by 2030, 65% by 2035, and 90% by 2040 [5,6].
Modern semi-trucks, equipped with different propulsion systems like electric, dual-fuel, or those running on ecological fuels, have operating differences compared to typical internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles that use diesel fuel. This differentiation is notable in road transportation, as efficiency incorporates frequently conflicting characteristics. It is essential to comprehend the significance of selecting the appropriate drive source throughout this shift in vehicle propulsion technologies, which is a critical concern for numerous entrepreneurs in the EU. Opting for the appropriate vehicle can provide a strategic advantage in a sector that accounts for over 6% of Poland’s GDP and employs approximately 1 million individuals [7].
The significance of this subject is emphasized by the requirement for extensive industry knowledge regarding the efficiency of logistics and the preservation of the environment in the development, production, and upkeep of facilities and systems, particularly modern logistics systems that are essential for road transportation [8]. The article provides a comprehensive overview of the current technologies utilized in road transport and their effects on the environment, functioning, and economy. The discussion will focus on the contrasting operational characteristics of contemporary electric and renewable fuel vehicles versus conventional vehicles powered by fossil fuels. The objective of the article is to demonstrate the fundamental changes in the power source of semi-trucks and the consequent effects on their potential applications. Additionally, it aims to identify the most operationally advantageous areas for specific types of power sources. This study offers a novel approach to comparing the available options for purchasing real semi-trucks in retail, specifically focusing on the different drives available. It goes beyond previous research by considering a broader range of factors related to the suitability of Heavy-Duty semi-trucks for commercial applications. This encompasses the overall expenses (acquisition, maintenance, operation, energy consumption), distance coverage, capacity and payload restrictions, influence on transportation costs and logistics, environmental consequences, and other relevant factors. Previously, scholars in this field have examined certain elements [9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16]. This publication provides a comprehensive and expansive view of this issue. Until now, there has been no complete comparison of all the major elements of genuine vehicles available for purchase on the market. The material offered in this work addresses this gap. The essence of the work is to use a theoretical approach and collect all the necessary aspects relevant to the actual attractiveness of the use and selection of a means of transport in the form of a semi-trailer.
The subsequent sections below provide a presentation of the data and methodology utilized for the calculations.

2. Materials and Methods

Volvo FH tractor models offered for open retail sale in 2024, with different drive sources, were selected for comparison. Volvo’s FH model significantly influenced the development of safety and environmental laws in Europe. Volvo consistently surpassed legislative demands by pioneering innovative technologies that eventually became industry norms. The manufacturer provides semi-trucks equipped with electric propulsion, dual fuel capability, and a conventional EURO VI diesel engine. The technical parameters presented in Table 1 are based on the information provided by the manufacturers of the vehicles being compared.
The electric version of the vehicle offers various driving modes that enhance the electricity economy. When comparing energy consumption, the most efficient results were considered for further calculations and comparisons, applicable to both electric and ICE vehicles. These figures were gathered from actual tests and operational driving, adhering to the provided references. It should be noted that Volvo is the sole manufacturer offering dual fuel (DF) heavy trucks powered by CH4 derivatives (LNG in this case) in a non-SI (Spark Ignition) version. This allows for a higher compression ratio, which enhances the energy efficiency overall. The vehicle in question can utilize both LNG and BioLNG as primary fuels, and diesel or its alternatives such as fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), biodiesel, or HVO for pilot dose ignition [23]. These diesel fuel alternatives are also compatible with the D13K500TC EURO VI engine. The turbo compound technology is employed to optimize the engine’s torque curve, consequently reducing fuel consumption, which is advantageous for long-haul operations [19]. Irrespective of the source of propulsion, the manufacturer has selected a 12-speed gearbox due to its ability to choose gear ratios that are suitable for different terrains, therefore affecting the vehicle’s energy efficiency. The drivetrain systems provided by the manufacturer were also taken into account to provide a comparison of vehicle dynamics. Table 2 summarizes a brief overview of the technical data of the vehicles under consideration, which is essential for comparing their traction characteristics.
In the configuration with both ICE (diesel, DF), the manufacturer offers a combination of the same AT2612G gearbox and rear axle. In the case of the electric drive, an integrated drive system containing 3 electric motors and a gearbox assembly with the same gear set as the gearbox used in the ICE configuration is considered. For trucks, which typically use a range of gears to handle heavy loads and varying speeds, the mechanical efficiency at different gear levels will be different. Higher gears are generally more efficient than lower gears as they provide a greater speed increase relative to the increase in energy input, while lower gears are designed to increase torque. The final drive ratio in the rear axle can be configured in each case (RSS1344D and RSS1344E), but the gear ratios were selected as in Table 2, which was justified in point 3.2 of this work.
All the above data were taken into account for further calculations. For the sake of transparency of content, the rest of the necessary data and methods to perform the calculation will be entered and presented directly in the appropriate subsections.
The next part of the article (Section 3) compares the operational aspects of the considered vehicles in terms of the following:
  • Payload and the associated semi-truck curb weight;
  • Vehicle dynamics in terms of power to weight and driving force at the wheels;
  • Logistics costs with the distinction of purchase and general maintenance costs, energy and TKM costs and others;
  • CO2 emissions over the entire life cycle of the vehicles.
The article is finished with a discussion section and synthesized conclusions.

3. Results

3.1. Payload

Semi-trucks are vehicles that provide users with a full configuration in terms of equipment, type and size of the cabin and the number of drive axles. Whatever drive type you prefer, Volvo tractor units are available with one or two driven rear axles. Each element of the semi-trailer can be adapted to the individual needs of the user. Depending on their preferences, customers can choose between a long or a short cabin, as well as between different cabin sizes. In addition, the tractor units are fully configurable in terms of equipment. Users can choose from a variety of options and extras such as safety systems, lighting, navigation systems, seats and seat mattresses to enhance comfort on long journeys. Although aspects such as equipment configuration, cab type and size, and number of driving axles are factors in terms of total vehicle weight, they will not be considered in further assessment. It was assumed that the compared vehicles have the same configuration of additional (selectable) equipment and differ only in the type of drive. There is no exact information on the weight of the Volvo FH electric powertrain. According to [5], the battery energy density in an EV is around 272–296 Wh/kg. The mass of the car battery under consideration, adding 35% to the net cell mass of the battery, can be calculated according to the following equation:
540,000 W h k g ~ 284   W h 1.35 ~ 2570   k g
Contrary to generally established beliefs, a production EV semi-truck, despite the very low energy density of chemical batteries, does not have to differ significantly in weight from their combustion versions. According to the information from [29], a fully prepared ICE engine with operating fluids and an exhaust gas treatment system can weigh approx. 1500 kg which, to some extent, compensates for the weight of the battery. The weight of the FH tractor unit may vary depending on the configuration; according to the source, the “light version” weight starts at approx. 6600 kg [30]. Differences in weight between the diesel and dual-fuel designs are almost the same [31], so they should not have a major impact on the overall energy intensity of the vehicle. The rest of the components of the drivetrain systems necessary to implement torque to the drive wheel of the vehicles can be considered equivalent mass for all types of propulsion. In further considerations, the typical weight of a universal curtain semi-trailer was assumed for 7200 kg [32]. Therefore, Table 3 below shows the curb weight of the vehicles concerned and their payloads. These data also form the basis for further calculations in this article.
In the case of the discussed vehicles, the ratio of the weight of the transported goods to the weight of the vehicle with the semi-trailer is, respectively, 1613 for EV and 1.81 for ICE. The difference in the vehicle load capacity is only 4.45% or in absolute numbers 1100 kg.

3.2. Dynamics of the Vehicle

The power-to-weight ratio, torque and power curves have a significant impact on the dynamics of a heavy vehicle. The power-to-weight ratio is the ratio of the vehicle’s weight to its maximum power output, while the torque curve describes how torque changes with engine speed. In general, a higher power-to-weight ratio means that a vehicle will have better acceleration. Additionally, a flatter torque curve can also lead to better dynamics, as it allows the engine to maintain a consistent power output at different engine speeds. Table 4 below summarizes the power-to-weight ratio for several selected load configurations.
The above data show a similar degree of vehicle operability due to their power-to-weight ratio. The specificity of the electric drive allows you to choose between performance exceeding the considered conventional drives, while sacrificing range, but we have more dynamics at our disposal (~13–30% more than ICE). Differences in the dynamics of DF and diesel are in the range of 2% in favor of the diesel-powered drivetrain. The traction characteristics of an EV differ from the traction characteristics of a vehicle with ICE, which has a significant impact on the dynamics and acceleration of the vehicle. Figure 3 shows the power and torque characteristics of an EV propulsion system. Figure 4 shows the power and torque curve for an FH engine equipped with an ICE: (a) diesel, (b) DF.
The figures presented above show a clear advantage in the torque curve (and therefore power) for the electric drive, in which the maximum torque is available from 0 rpm up to 4000 rpm. However, inaccuracies in the data presented by the manufacturer are clearly visible, both in Table 1 and in the chart in Figure 3. According to the formula for engine power [35].
N e = M o · n 9549.3   [ k W ]
N e = 1.36 M o · n 9549.3   [ H P ]
where Momotor torque [Nm], n—motor speed [rpm].
For the exemplary value of 3000 rpm and 3800 Nm from the graph in Figure 3 the result power is ~1623.5 HP. This is approx. 3.35 times more power than actually shown on the chart. This indicates that the presented torque data use values multiplied by the vehicles final drive (Table 2). This may have purely marketing justification. The manufacturer Volvo did not respond to questions about discrepancies in this aspect asked by the authors in an e-mail. In further considerations, the ratio between the maximum power curve and the rotational speed from Figure 5, as well as the actual equivalent calculated torque, were taken into account. No such inaccuracies were found for ICEs.
Tractive effort curves serve as a comparison tool for the performance of vehicles with varying designs. These curves are depicted through a diagram that illustrates the relationship between the traction force (FT) exerted on the vehicles wheels and the driving speed (v) [36,37].
F T = M o · i N · η N r k [ N ]
where iN—gear ratio, η—drivetrain efficiency, and rk—drive wheel radius [m].
v = 3.6 2 π n · r k 60 · i N [ k m / h ]
In Figure 5, the example of tractive effort curve–driving force as a function of speed for a car equipped with a four-speed gearbox is presented below.
Figure 5. The example of tractive effort curve for a car equipped with a four-speed gearbox. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [37].
Figure 5. The example of tractive effort curve for a car equipped with a four-speed gearbox. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [37].
Energies 17 01018 g005
The above diagram can also be superimposed with maximum power hyperbola, which in the F-V coordinate system is calculated as [37]:
F T   v = P TMAX
where PTMAX = max. power on drive wheels.
In Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8, the tractive effort curve with maximum power hyperbola is presented for electric, DF and diesel drives, respectively, and Figure 9 shows the combined hyperbolas and first gear curve which represents the maximum avalible wheel force.
The peak wheel force is greater in ICEs with the two highest gear ratios. However, the frequent gear shifts required—due to the ICEs limited range of high torque—slow down the process and adversely impact the vehicles dynamics. In contrast, the electric drivetrain displays a vast range of speeds over which their torque remains consistent, offering significant flexibility and positively influencing their dynamics, especially in the context of the frequent need to start and stop (urban and suburban conditions). Similarly, it is positively reflected in situations of variable demand for partial power, which reflects most of the operating time of a typical tractor unit. The use of ICE indicated that peak propulsion power is practical only in rare, extreme circumstances that seldom occur in everyday road transport on paved infrastructure with a known maximum load. High wheel peak power can be effectively used for, e.g., transporting oversized loads.
As mentioned earlier, for the highest gear ratios, differences in favor of ICEs are clearly visible. The electric drive system, thanks to constant high torque values from 0 rpm and the highest maximum power, has the most pro-dynamically improved maximum power hyperbole for the other 10 gears. The dynamics converge to one point as the maximum speed is approached.
To sum up, the area under the graph in Figure 9 above for the EV is only 2% higher than the ICE, but this does not reflect the actual subjective dynamics of such a vehicle, as explained in the previous paragraphs. The electric drive shows its advantage in frequent start–stop conditions and in situations of large load fluctuations. As we approach the maximum speeds, a convergence in the maximum performance of the electric drive and the ICE is observed. The differences between DF and diesel apart from the first gear ratio are almost identical.

3.3. Logistics Costs

Amidst the current era of instability characterized by unpredictable energy prices, fluctuating demand and supply, and disrupted supply chains, transport companies operating fleets of semi-trucks have significant issues in managing logistical expenses. These costs encompass various elements, including fuel expenses, vehicle maintenance costs, expenses associated with transport management, and the costs of foregone benefits resulting from operational limits and forced vehicle stops. Therefore, for semi-truck fleet owners, controlling logistics costs is crucial to achieving profitability. This chapter will discuss, in detail, the logistics costs associated with the use of selected truck tractors.

3.3.1. Purchase and Maintenance Costs

The purchase costs of semi-trucks obtained directly from a Volvo dealer on the Polish market. The starting price for selected models is as follows: Volvo FH Electric—EUR ~400,000; Volvo FH Gas (DF)—EUR ~150,000; and Volvo FH500 Euro VI—EUR ~115,000 [38].
To compare the costs of vehicle maintenance due to the differences in the drive, elements that distinguish specific drives in the context of their service were selected. Electric vehicles, due to recuperation, do not wear brake discs and pads in such an intensive way, and there is no need to change oil and filters, as is the case with ICE. According to the information obtained about the authorized Volvo repair service [38], the cost of the oil and filter service is PLN 2999 (EUR ~640). In the case of service costs for DF, due to the linkage of the maintenance of LNG tanks and additional fuel filters, as well as the higher MOT cost, the total cost of servicing was increased by 30% in comparison to the FH500 Euro VI. Oil and filter servicing should be performed every 120,000 km. Replacing a set of brake discs and pads for one axle is PLN 800 (EUR ~170). It is worth remembering that the use of an electric vehicle also reduces the wear of the brakes on the towed semi-trailer. In the comparison for semi and trailer combination, it was established that brakes are replaced after 150,000 km, and in the case of EV, it is four times less often, i.e., 600,000 km. The considered distance is the lifetime of the truck 1.5 million kilometers. A one-time replacement of the clutch in ICEs (EUR 2.500) was also assumed. Figure 10 below shows the costs associated with the purchase and maintenance of selected vehicles:

3.3.2. Energy Costs

Due to geopolitical and economic turmoil, wholesale electricity prices in Europe have changed drastically, as shown in Figure 11 below.
It is difficult to give an accurate prediction of future electricity costs. For the purpose of calculations for this article, the average value of electricity is at the level of 0.1 EUR/kWh. It is worth noting that the costs of electricity from fast DC chargers on highways or in logistics centers are approximately three times higher [40].
As in the case of electricity, the prices of all types of fuels in Europe have been very volatile recently. Figure 12 below shows changes in diesel fuel prices in selected European countries.
For the purpose of calculations for this article, the average net price for fuels was taken: diesel1.75 EUR/L [39]; HVO2.2 EUR/L [42]; LNG2 EUR/kg [43]; BioLNG1.6 EUR/kg [44]. AdBlue consumption was assumed at 0.2 L/100 km and cost 0.6 EUR/L. Fuel/electricity consumption for ICEs and EVs was selected in accordance with Table 1. Figure 13 below shows the costs related to fuel over a lifetime of 1.5 million kilometers for individual selected configurations.

3.3.3. Ton-Kilometre Costs

The impact of the TKM on logistics and transport is related to the optimization of logistics and transport processes. Thanks to this tool, companies can conduct analyses and make decisions regarding the selection of the best transport solutions, such as the choice of the appropriate means of transport, transport route or the date of delivery of goods [45]. The TKM is an important indicator used in logistics and transport because it allows us to accurately determine the cost of transport and the efficiency of transport activities. The greater the TKM, the greater the volume of goods transported in a shorter time, which means a higher efficiency of logistics activities. To calculate the cost of one TKM, the data on the full payload value from Table 2 and the unit cost per kilometer are used in accordance with the data from Section 3.3.2 of this paper, summing a total vehicle distance of 1.5 million kilometers. The cost of one TKM was calculated according to the following formula [45]:
e n e r g y   c o s t   [ ] d i s t a n c e   [ k m ] t o t a l   d i s t a n c e   [ k m ]   p a y l o a d   t o n n e t o t a l   d i s t a n c e   [ k m ]   = c o s t   [ ] T K M  
The costs of one ton-kilometer over a period of operation of 1.5 million kilometers for individually selected vehicle configurations are presented below in Figure 14.

3.3.4. Non-Physical Costs and Other

Refueling/Replenishing Energy

The battery charging rate declared by the manufacturer is about 43 kW using alternating current (AC) and 250 kW using direct current (DC) [46]. This gives the full battery charging time of 9.5 h for AC and 2.5 h with DC, respectively. It takes less than 13 min to fill up the Volvo FH500 with diesel fuel [18]. LNG refueling takes 3–5 min [18]. The need for extended EV charging time eliminates the use of the vehicle over long distances. The profitability of this type of solution in todays reality is far from being competitive with liquid or gaseous fuels. This problem may not be relevant in the context of short-distance permanent types of work.

Refueling Infrastructure

There are currently around 130,000 filling stations in Europe, and most of them offer the possibility of refueling with diesel. In addition, most petrol stations also offer various services and amenities, such as car washes, grocery stores, and service points. However, in recent years, diesel has started to lose its popularity due to issues related to exhaust emissions and environmental impact. Consequently, an increasing number of European nations are endeavoring to augment the proportion of alternative fuels, such as LNG, CNG, or electricity, potentially resulting in modifications to the accessibility of refueling infrastructure. According to data from the European Environment Agency (EEA), there are currently around 600 LNG and BioLNG filling stations in Europe, with most of them located in countries such as Spain, France, Germany and Italy. However, in some countries, such as Poland, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, it is still rare. Nevertheless, over the next few years, it is planned to expand the LNG refueling infrastructure in Europe, especially in the heavy transport sector. Many European countries are striving to increase the share of alternative fuels in transport, and LNG is considered one of the most promising solutions. As part of such a process, more and more companies plan to build new LNG refueling stations, as well as expand the existing infrastructure. Most of these projects focus on creating so-called LNG and BioLNG corridors, i.e., a network of LNG refueling stations on selected routes in Europe, which are particularly important for heavy transport. The charging infrastructure for trucks in Europe is developing along with the growing interest in electric vehicles. There are currently around 365,000 charging stations, both public and private (Figure 15) [47].
Unfortunately, about 90% of charging stations, due to their location and/or installed capacity, are not able to handle heavy goods vehicles [48]. Volvo also offers a mobile charger for applications with three-phase power connections [20]. In certain European months, it allows an increase in the operability of this type of vehicle. Charging on your own, i.e., on the premises of companies, logistics hubs, and parking lots, is one of the solutions for truck fleet operators. At this point, the companys use of its own charging station, preferably in combination with renewable energy sources, gives the best results to save time and costs and establish market competition at certain distances. A similar situation applies to HVO and other ecological liquid fuels. At the moment, there are already developed technologies and power systems that make it possible to charge trucks with high power consumption. Along with technological progress, it can be expected that these technologies will become more and more advanced and available, which will allow for further development of electric motoring in Europe, and this is a clear trend. Unfortunately, e-limitations related to the energy consumption of long-distance heavy transport combined with the low energy density of batteries indicate the lack of alternatives in this sector for chemical fuels, regardless of whether they come from renewable sources.

Toll Relief

For EV trucks, many countries offer various forms of toll relief, such as freeway toll exemptions or preferential toll rates compared to combustion vehicles. In Poland, electric vehicles are exempt from tolls on roads managed by the General Directorate for National Roads and Motorways [49]. Also a good example of favoring electric trucks is the German exemption from Toll Collect fees starting in December 2023 [50]. Similar discounts are also available for trucks using alternative fuels, such as natural gas, LPG, biofuels or hydrogen. Some countries offer toll exemptions or preferential rates, as well as tax credits. Toll credits for EVs and alternative fuel vehicles are good for the environment because they encourage the replacement of traditional internal combustion vehicles with greener alternatives [5]. At the same time, they help companies switch to greener solutions without incurring additional road toll costs [51].

Ecological Subsidies

In Europe, there are also programs to subsidize biofuel-powered vehicles and EVs. These programs aim to accelerate the transition to more sustainable and greener power sources in the transport sector. In Poland, the Clean Air program enables co-financing the purchase and installation of photovoltaic installations and other renewable energy sources that can be used to charge electric vehicles [52]. The Polish government also subsidizes the purchase of electric and hybrid cars, with the amount of subsidy depending on the vehicle category and battery capacity [53]. In other European countries, there are also programs to subsidize electric and biofuel vehicles. In Germany, there is the “Umweltbonus” [54] program that provides subsidies for the purchase of electric or hybrid cars, and in Sweden, the government offers scholarships for the purchase of electric and hybrid cars. With regard to vehicles powered by biofuels, in Sweden there is a program “Förnybart drivmedel” [55] that offers subsidies for the purchase of biofuels, and in Germany the government supports producers of biofuels through tax rates [56]. In the UK, there is also the “Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation” program, which obliges fuel distributors to supply increasing amounts of biofuels [57]. In other European countries, there are also programs to subsidize ecological trucks. In Belgium, the government subsidizes the purchase of natural gas trucks, and in the UK, there is the Clean Vehicle Retrofit Accreditation Scheme, which supports the modernization of existing trucks to meet exhaust emission standards [58].

3.4. Emission of CO2

The average CO2 emission per energy unit varies significantly depending on where it is produced and the energy mix used. Table 5 below shows the different emission values for different countries taking into account the energy mix:
In the EU, the average electricity production is 0.269 kg CO2-eq/kWh [60]. Due to the locality of the operation of electric trucks, data for Poland, France and the average for the EU will be shown in the results. Electricity transmission lines efficiency according to [61,62] is 88%. The electric efficiency of EV chargers is typically measured as a percentage of how much energy is transferred from the grid to the vehicle’s battery during the charging process. The efficiency of a charger can vary depending on the charging rate, power output, and technology used. For the purposes of the calculation, we will take the efficiency of the charger at the average level of 90%. Therefore, the emissions resulting from the electricity supplied to the battery, well to wheels (WTW) emissions, are 0.829 kg in Poland, 0.061 kg in France and 0.340 kg for the average EU CO2-eq/kWh.
Well-to-tank (WTT) and tank-to-wheel (TTW) emissions (which gives WTW emissions) consist of many variables. For the purposes of this study, the following data in Table 6 were selected.
Emissions should also include the environmental costs incurred to produce the vehicle. According to the study [68], the article assumes that the average emission from battery production is 150 kg CO2-eq/kWh. Vehicle production (without batteries) produces about 5 kg CO2-eq/every vehicle’s kg [69], the same value as set for ICE vehicles.
Fuel/electricity consumption for ICEs and EVs was selected in accordance with Table 1 (page 2). Below are the calculated lifetime emission results, including the production and use of the car in its full lifetime (1.5 million kilometers) for individual drives in Figure 16.

4. Discussion

The semi-trucks featured in the comparison are the currently available products on the open market. This demonstrates the manufacturer’s recognition of the economic viability and sales potential of each of these cars, and each of them adheres to relevant legislative restrictions.
The weight of the EV truck tractor, due to the very heavy and low-capacity electrochemical batteries, is greater than that of a typical tractor unit. In the comparison shown, however, this vehicle was not significantly heavier than the vehicles with ICE. Calculations showed that it was about 15% heavier. This turned into a difference of approx. 4.5% less payload. This is due to the battery’s weight being compensated for by the weight of the large ICE and the power suitable for a heavy vehicle. In this comparison, the vehicles show a similar value in use and are characterized by a similar usability.
The power-to-weight ratio for an EV covers, to a large extent, the ratio for ICE vehicles, which is related to the possibility of using different operating modes of the drive system. This is dictated by the desire to extend the EV range due to the use of a lower power mode. In maximum power mode, it is definitely higher by (13–30% or more, depending on the load). The dynamics of the vehicle are also improved by the torque and power characteristics of the electric motors (flat maximum torque from 0 RPM), which, combined with the 12-speed i-shift gearbox, ensure high dynamics. This means that the electric vehicle can deliver maximum torque instantly, providing quick acceleration and excellent performance in stop-and-go traffic, such as in cities and mountainous roads. In addition, regenerative braking in electric vehicles recovers energy that would otherwise be lost during braking, contributing to a more efficient and smoother ride in choppy driving conditions. The graph under the dynamic characteristics curve for EVs has only a slightly larger area, just 2% larger than that of ICE; however, this does not fully capture the true driving dynamics of the vehicles as detailed earlier. Apart from the initial gear ratio, the differences between diesel (DF) and diesel engines are remarkably similar. At higher speeds, similar peak performance values of the electric drive and the ICE engine are noticeable. The higher maximum output torque in an ICE is only available within a certain narrow speed range. In the case of long-haul transport, the benefits resulting from the energy density of chemical fuels extending the range of the vehicle and the low potential of kinetic energy recovery indicate the use of ICE vehicles.
A brand new electric semi-truck is almost four times more expensive than a semi-truck powered by a diesel engine and over 2.5 times more expensive than a DF one. A small fraction of the costs at the moment are compensated by the simplified operation of the electric drive and the extended life of the braking system resulting from the implementation of the EV recuperation system. After taking into account the energy costs of operating the vehicle during its lifetime of 1.5 million kilometers, the EV takes the lead. DF vehicles outperform single-fuel configurations. Values of the total lifetime costs of vehicles are summarized in Figure 17 below.
The TKM costs for an EV are more than two times lower than for semi-trucks with ICE. DF vehicles have a TKM cost of an ICE diesel and an 11 to 39% lower cost than HVO-only.
A big problem in the case of a semi-truck EV is the time-consuming process of recharging energy, which, in the context of long-distance road transport, makes it impossible to use such a vehicle in an economically rational framework. This does not change the fact that these vehicles can be used on certain short routes in a pendulum pattern; in the market of local deliveries, it is perfectly justified. Due to the pressure and the need to eliminate fossil fuels, eco-driven vehicles are rewarded with purchase subsidies and exclusions from typical tolls. This puts DF solutions using alternative fuels as a potential candidate to fill the gap in long-distance heavy road transport. Unfortunately, this requires further investment in refueling infrastructure, which applies in particular to LNG and BioLNG fuels.
The use of fossil fuels to generate energy each time significantly increases the emission of carbon dioxide [70,71]. We are talking here about the variant of diesel combustion, using it in dual fuel in the form of natural gas or in the form of electricity generated from non-renewable sources. The lowest life cycle emission in the comparison was shown by the DF vehicle powered by HVO and BioLNG. It was better compared to an EV powered by the “cleanest” electricity due to the high greenhouse gas emissions correlated with the production of the vehicle’s battery. The WTW GHG emissions of EVs depend on the electricity carbon intensity, decarbonizing is easier in areas with low-carbon electricity. Still, a zero-emission tailpipe indicates a social benefit in places of high population density.
The transition towards alternative power sources for semi-trucks, in relation to environmental concerns, is filled with difficulties. An essential concern is the urgent need to replace fossil fuels in the goods transport industry, given their harmful environmental consequences, which necessitate the adoption of alternative energy sources, such as vehicles that run on electricity or biofuels, which are the focus of this analysis. The issue of hydrogen, due to its low energy density and problems resulting from low efficiency in piston engines and big problems in maintaining an appropriate narrow ∆T on fuel cells [72], happens to currently not be a favored option among truck manufacturers, a fact mirrored by the absence of such vehicles in retail sales as well as ammonia powered option [73]. However, work on this type of drive is ongoing [74]. A similar situation applies to purely synthetic fuels. The low energy density of batteries, coupled with their considerable weight and prolonged charging times, presents seemingly insurmountable hurdles for long-haul heavy-duty transport. Regrettably, EVs may not be cost-effective for long-distance logistics. However, for urban and intercity travel within their maximum range (approximately ~400 km in our consideration), and everywhere else, regenerative braking is feasible (urban, suburban areas, mountainous terrain), and the low cost of electricity and minimal environmental impact render them unbeatable. EVs are already making inroads into the market for short-range distribution and local transport. For tractor units, the DF configuration offers a viable middle ground between range and ecological concerns. The operational costs of such vehicles are comparable to those of long-established diesel vehicles. While infrastructure access remains an obstacle, there are plans and ongoing efforts to improve this. The impact of ICE vehicles burning green fuels under the conditions of today’s electricity generation infrastructure in Europe in most cases outweighs the environmental benefits of “zero emission” EVs. This is best seen in the total emissions CO2 of a truck used, for example, in Poland, where, as of 2023, its full-lifetime emissions are only slightly better than the latest semi-truck diesel meeting the Euro VI standard. Despite this, the lack of emissions from EVs in urban settings is a distinct advantage from the standpoint of public health. In each case, the types of heavy vehicle drives considered in the article can be used today and have their own market, as shown by the structure of freight transport in the EU presented in Figure 18 below.

5. Conclusions

The article provides a comprehensive evaluation of the appeal of traditional and eco-friendly semi-trucks within the European road freight sector. The condensed conclusion summarized in the bullet points below discusses the balancing act between economic feasibility, functional effectiveness, and ecological consequences of different semi-truck drive options available in the retail market. These points illuminate a wider view of the transition toward greener transportation solutions, focusing on the interplay among regulatory compliance, environmental considerations, and the logistics of cost-effectiveness:
  • EV truck tractors are about 15% heavier than typical ICE semi-trucks, translating to a ~1.5-ton lower payload, which is offset by the absence of a heavy ICE engine.
  • The power-to-weight ratio of EVs is comparable to ICE vehicles, with electric semi-trucks providing better dynamics due to instant torque delivery and efficient performance in varied traffic conditions The highly dynamic EV loses its importance at higher cruising speeds.
  • Despite being costlier upfront, EVs lead in energy cost savings over a lifetime of 1.5 million kilometers when compared to diesel and DF vehicles.
  • Total lifetime operation costs for EVs are lower than ICE vehicles, with DF vehicles being a cost-effective middle ground.
  • Long and often recharging for EVs is unacceptable for long-haul transport but is viable for short-haul and local deliveries, benefiting from subsidies and toll exemptions.
  • The lowest lifecycle emissions were from DF vehicles using HVO and BioLNG, even when compared to EVs with “clean” electricity, due to battery production emissions.
  • In regions with low-carbon electricity, EVs have a social benefit in densely populated areas due to zero tailpipe emissions.
  • Despite the big challenges of alternative energy adoption for long-haul transport, EVs excel in urban and suburban transport within a range of ~400 km.
  • The environmental impact of ICE vehicles using green fuels may outweigh the benefits of EVs in regions with carbon-intensive electricity infrastructure.
  • ICE vehicles, thanks to their longer range due to high energy density and high ecological potential of ecological fuels, the lack of difficulties resulting from energy replenishment, and good bases for the rapid transformation of infrastructure, indicate further unrivaledness on long-distance routes. The potential of BioLNG and HVO could be applied to the EU’s international road transport industry in the coming years, provided that enforcement does not change the trajectory of engineers and real market applications. Different types of heavy-duty vehicle propulsion systems already have distinct market niches, as evidenced by EU freight transport data.
Following this study, future work could take a broader perspective on the sustainability of automotive fuels and energy carriers such as synthetic fuels. Taking into account the limitations of raw materials and other resources. It also seems reasonable to conduct a broader comparison using more market information, i.e., vehicles from more manufacturers and more markets such as the USA, China, India, etc.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.C. and T.D.; methodology, J.C.; software, J.C.; validation, J.C. and T.D.; formal analysis, J.C.; investigation, J.C.; resources, J.C.; data curation, J.C.; writing—original draft preparation, J.C.; writing—review and editing, J.C.; visualization, J.C.; supervision T.D.; project administration, J.C.; funding acquisition, T.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The article was written as part of the implementation of the internal University research grant no. UGB 711/2024.

Data Availability Statement

Data is contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

CNGCompressed Natural Gas
DFDual Fuel
EEAEuropean Environment Agency
FHmodel of Volvo semi-truck
FTTraction force
EPTElectric Propulsion Transmission
EUEuropean Union
EVElectric Vehicle
ICEInternal Combustion Engine
HPHorse Power
HVOHydrotreated vegetable oil
LNGLiquefied Natural Gas
LPGLiquefied Petroleum Gas
MOTan annual test of vehicle safety and roadworthiness aspects. The name derives from the Ministry of Transport
RPMRevolutions Per Minute
TCTurbo compound
TKMTon-kilometre
UKUnited Kingdom

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Figure 1. EU market share for top 10 countries of total road transport in 2022. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [2].
Figure 1. EU market share for top 10 countries of total road transport in 2022. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [2].
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Figure 2. New EU passenger cars sold by power source-market share 2018–2022. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [3].
Figure 2. New EU passenger cars sold by power source-market share 2018–2022. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [3].
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Figure 3. Power and torque characteristics for an EV propulsion system. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found on the vehicle’s producer website [34].
Figure 3. Power and torque characteristics for an EV propulsion system. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found on the vehicle’s producer website [34].
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Figure 4. Power and torque characteristics: (a) diesel; (b) DF. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found on the vehicles’ producer website [34].
Figure 4. Power and torque characteristics: (a) diesel; (b) DF. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found on the vehicles’ producer website [34].
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Figure 6. Tractive effort curves determined for electric powertrain.
Figure 6. Tractive effort curves determined for electric powertrain.
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Figure 7. Tractive effort curves determined for DF powertrain.
Figure 7. Tractive effort curves determined for DF powertrain.
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Figure 8. Tractive effort curves determined for diesel powertrain.
Figure 8. Tractive effort curves determined for diesel powertrain.
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Figure 9. Hyperboles and 1st gear combined for all powertrains.
Figure 9. Hyperboles and 1st gear combined for all powertrains.
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Figure 10. Comparison of service and purchase costs over a lifetime distance of typed vehicles (1.5 million kilometers).
Figure 10. Comparison of service and purchase costs over a lifetime distance of typed vehicles (1.5 million kilometers).
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Figure 11. Average wholesale electricity costs in European countries since January 2020. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [39]. Average price in euros per megawatt-hour.
Figure 11. Average wholesale electricity costs in European countries since January 2020. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [39]. Average price in euros per megawatt-hour.
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Figure 12. Average diesel fuel prices in European countries since January 2021. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [41].
Figure 12. Average diesel fuel prices in European countries since January 2021. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [41].
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Figure 13. Energy cost for selected vehicle configurations and drives/fuel type in a lifetime of 1.5 million kilometers.
Figure 13. Energy cost for selected vehicle configurations and drives/fuel type in a lifetime of 1.5 million kilometers.
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Figure 14. Ton-kilometer cost for selected vehicle configurations and drives/fuel type in a lifetime.
Figure 14. Ton-kilometer cost for selected vehicle configurations and drives/fuel type in a lifetime.
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Figure 15. The distribution of EV charging stations in Europe. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the website [47].
Figure 15. The distribution of EV charging stations in Europe. Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the website [47].
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Figure 16. CO2-eq footprint of the life cycle of selected vehicles for different fuels and electricity markets.
Figure 16. CO2-eq footprint of the life cycle of selected vehicles for different fuels and electricity markets.
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Figure 17. Total lifetime operation cost of compared vehicles.
Figure 17. Total lifetime operation cost of compared vehicles.
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Figure 18. Quarterly road freight transport by type of operationm, EU 2018–2022 (bilion TKM). Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [56].
Figure 18. Quarterly road freight transport by type of operationm, EU 2018–2022 (bilion TKM). Drawing made by the authors based on available data found in the paper [56].
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Table 1. Selected technical data of the compared semi-trucks. Table made by the authors based on available data found in [17,18,19,20,21,22].
Table 1. Selected technical data of the compared semi-trucks. Table made by the authors based on available data found in [17,18,19,20,21,22].
VehicleVolvo FH Electric [17]Volvo FH Gas
(Dual Fuel—DF) [18,19]
Volvo FH500 Euro VI [19]
Drive type:
engine,
gearbox
3 electric motors,
12 gears I-Shift drive gearbox
G13C500,
12 gears I-Shift drive gearbox
D13K500TC (turbo compound),
12 gears I-Shift drive gearbox
Fuel typeelectricDiesel/HVO and
LNG/BioLNG
Diesel/HVO
The maximum power/torque330 kW (eco mode)
490 kW (power mode)
continuous power
2400 Nm full range
368 kW through 1404–1700 RPM
2500 Nm through 980–1404 RPM
370 kW through 1250–1600 RPM
2800 Nm through 900–1250 RPM
Energy consumption at full load1.1 kWh/km
(eco mode) [20]
0.246 kg/km LNG and
0.024 L/km diesel [21]
0.27 L/km [22]
The largest energy storage offeredBattery pack 540 kWh
(useful capacity 80%)
LNG gas tanks 225 kg
(545 L)
Liquid fuel tank 150 L
Fuel tanks 1480 L
Range *~392 km~915 km~5480 km
* theoretical range calculated from the capacity of the energy storage tank and average consumption.
Table 2. Selected transmission data of the compared semi-trucks. Table made by the authors based on available data found in [24,25,26,27,28].
Table 2. Selected transmission data of the compared semi-trucks. Table made by the authors based on available data found in [24,25,26,27,28].
Engine TypeDieselDual FuelElectric
Gearbox TypeVolvo I-Shift 12
AT2612G [24]
Volvo I-Shift 12
EPT2412 NEM3 [25] *
Gear No.Gear Ratioη—Gear Efficiency [26]
1st14.94:1η—88%
2nd11.73:1η—90%
3rd9.04:1η—91%
4th7.09:1η—92%
5th5.54:1η—93%
6th4.35:1η—94%
7th3.44:1η—95%
8th2.70:1η—96%
9th2.08:1η—97%
10th1.63:1η—98%
11th1.27:1η—99%
12th1:1η—100%
Rear axleVolvo RSS1344D [27]Volvo RSS1344E [28]
Final gearing2.85:13.36:1
Gearing efficiency [26]η—98%η—97%
Drive wheels size315/70R22.5 = Tire radius ~500 mm
* Volvo Electric Drive Unit equipped with NEM3 (Number of electrical motors—3 units) total electric traction at 2400 Nm and EPT (Electric Propulsion Transmission) 2412 in-house I-Shift 12-speed gearbox [8].
Table 3. Curb weight and according to the payload for selected semi-trucks.
Table 3. Curb weight and according to the payload for selected semi-trucks.
ElectricDFDiesel
Semi weight [kg]810070007000
Payload [kg] *24,70025,80025,800
* The maximum total weight of a typical heavy goods road transport set in Europe, i.e., a 2-axle semi-truck with a 3-axle semi-trailer, cannot exceed 40,000 kg [33].
Table 4. Power-to-weight ratio of selected vehicle sets and various loads.
Table 4. Power-to-weight ratio of selected vehicle sets and various loads.
Power-to-Weight Ratio (kW/ton)
VehicleElectricDFDiesel
Eco ModePower Mode
Semi only40.7460.4952.4953.57
Semi with trailer only21.5632.0225.826.4
25% of the total weight of the possible freight load *15.3622.8117.7718.16
50% of the total weight of the possible freight load *11.9317.7213.5413.87
75% of the total weight of the possible freight load *9.5014.4810.9311.18
Gross combination weight: 40 tons8.2512.259.179.37
* Calculated from the formula: maximum load weight = semi-truck weight + semi-trailer weight − 40,000 kg [33].
Table 5. Structure of electricity production and intensity of carbon dioxide emissions for the listed countries. Table made by the authors based on available data found in the works [59,60].
Table 5. Structure of electricity production and intensity of carbon dioxide emissions for the listed countries. Table made by the authors based on available data found in the works [59,60].
Electricity Production Mix [%]Carbon Intensity, g CO2-eq/kWh
RenewablesNuclearGasOilCoalOther
Poland21030697657
France2072502148
EU average3325192201269
China25430653555
India19252712708
USA1819331281401
Canada64159182140
Table 6. Well-to-tank, tank-to-wheels and well-to-wheels CO2-eq emissions for diesel, HVO, LNG and BioLNG.
Table 6. Well-to-tank, tank-to-wheels and well-to-wheels CO2-eq emissions for diesel, HVO, LNG and BioLNG.
Diesel [63]HVOLNGBioLNG
WTT [CO2-eq/kg]0.76−2.711.34−2.48
TTW * [CO2/kg]3.183.102.752.75
WTW ** [CO2-eq/kg]3.940.39 [64]3.09 [65]0.27 [66]
* The design value resulting from the chemical reaction burns the given fuel according to [67]. ** For HVO, LNG, and BioLNG, the value is directly related to the change in WTW emissions compared to diesel fuel as indicated in sources.
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Chojnowski, J.; Dziubak, T. Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market. Energies 2024, 17, 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018

AMA Style

Chojnowski J, Dziubak T. Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market. Energies. 2024; 17(5):1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chojnowski, Janusz, and Tadeusz Dziubak. 2024. "Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market" Energies 17, no. 5: 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018

APA Style

Chojnowski, J., & Dziubak, T. (2024). Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market. Energies, 17(5), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018

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