Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. General Context and Market Situation
1.2. Motivation and Research Gap
2. Materials and Methods
- Payload and the associated semi-truck curb weight;
- Vehicle dynamics in terms of power to weight and driving force at the wheels;
- Logistics costs with the distinction of purchase and general maintenance costs, energy and TKM costs and others;
- CO2 emissions over the entire life cycle of the vehicles.
3. Results
3.1. Payload
3.2. Dynamics of the Vehicle
3.3. Logistics Costs
3.3.1. Purchase and Maintenance Costs
3.3.2. Energy Costs
3.3.3. Ton-Kilometre Costs
3.3.4. Non-Physical Costs and Other
Refueling/Replenishing Energy
Refueling Infrastructure
Toll Relief
Ecological Subsidies
3.4. Emission of CO2
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- EV truck tractors are about 15% heavier than typical ICE semi-trucks, translating to a ~1.5-ton lower payload, which is offset by the absence of a heavy ICE engine.
- The power-to-weight ratio of EVs is comparable to ICE vehicles, with electric semi-trucks providing better dynamics due to instant torque delivery and efficient performance in varied traffic conditions The highly dynamic EV loses its importance at higher cruising speeds.
- Despite being costlier upfront, EVs lead in energy cost savings over a lifetime of 1.5 million kilometers when compared to diesel and DF vehicles.
- Total lifetime operation costs for EVs are lower than ICE vehicles, with DF vehicles being a cost-effective middle ground.
- Long and often recharging for EVs is unacceptable for long-haul transport but is viable for short-haul and local deliveries, benefiting from subsidies and toll exemptions.
- The lowest lifecycle emissions were from DF vehicles using HVO and BioLNG, even when compared to EVs with “clean” electricity, due to battery production emissions.
- In regions with low-carbon electricity, EVs have a social benefit in densely populated areas due to zero tailpipe emissions.
- Despite the big challenges of alternative energy adoption for long-haul transport, EVs excel in urban and suburban transport within a range of ~400 km.
- The environmental impact of ICE vehicles using green fuels may outweigh the benefits of EVs in regions with carbon-intensive electricity infrastructure.
- ICE vehicles, thanks to their longer range due to high energy density and high ecological potential of ecological fuels, the lack of difficulties resulting from energy replenishment, and good bases for the rapid transformation of infrastructure, indicate further unrivaledness on long-distance routes. The potential of BioLNG and HVO could be applied to the EU’s international road transport industry in the coming years, provided that enforcement does not change the trajectory of engineers and real market applications. Different types of heavy-duty vehicle propulsion systems already have distinct market niches, as evidenced by EU freight transport data.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
CNG | Compressed Natural Gas |
DF | Dual Fuel |
EEA | European Environment Agency |
FH | model of Volvo semi-truck |
FT | Traction force |
EPT | Electric Propulsion Transmission |
EU | European Union |
EV | Electric Vehicle |
ICE | Internal Combustion Engine |
HP | Horse Power |
HVO | Hydrotreated vegetable oil |
LNG | Liquefied Natural Gas |
LPG | Liquefied Petroleum Gas |
MOT | an annual test of vehicle safety and roadworthiness aspects. The name derives from the Ministry of Transport |
RPM | Revolutions Per Minute |
TC | Turbo compound |
TKM | Ton-kilometre |
UK | United Kingdom |
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Vehicle | Volvo FH Electric [17] | Volvo FH Gas (Dual Fuel—DF) [18,19] | Volvo FH500 Euro VI [19] |
---|---|---|---|
Drive type: engine, gearbox | 3 electric motors, 12 gears I-Shift drive gearbox | G13C500, 12 gears I-Shift drive gearbox | D13K500TC (turbo compound), 12 gears I-Shift drive gearbox |
Fuel type | electric | Diesel/HVO and LNG/BioLNG | Diesel/HVO |
The maximum power/torque | 330 kW (eco mode) 490 kW (power mode) continuous power 2400 Nm full range | 368 kW through 1404–1700 RPM 2500 Nm through 980–1404 RPM | 370 kW through 1250–1600 RPM 2800 Nm through 900–1250 RPM |
Energy consumption at full load | 1.1 kWh/km (eco mode) [20] | 0.246 kg/km LNG and 0.024 L/km diesel [21] | 0.27 L/km [22] |
The largest energy storage offered | Battery pack 540 kWh (useful capacity 80%) | LNG gas tanks 225 kg (545 L) Liquid fuel tank 150 L | Fuel tanks 1480 L |
Range * | ~392 km | ~915 km | ~5480 km |
Engine Type | Diesel | Dual Fuel | Electric |
---|---|---|---|
Gearbox Type | Volvo I-Shift 12 AT2612G [24] | Volvo I-Shift 12 EPT2412 NEM3 [25] * | |
Gear No. | Gear Ratio | η—Gear Efficiency [26] | |
1st | 14.94:1 | η—88% | |
2nd | 11.73:1 | η—90% | |
3rd | 9.04:1 | η—91% | |
4th | 7.09:1 | η—92% | |
5th | 5.54:1 | η—93% | |
6th | 4.35:1 | η—94% | |
7th | 3.44:1 | η—95% | |
8th | 2.70:1 | η—96% | |
9th | 2.08:1 | η—97% | |
10th | 1.63:1 | η—98% | |
11th | 1.27:1 | η—99% | |
12th | 1:1 | η—100% | |
Rear axle | Volvo RSS1344D [27] | Volvo RSS1344E [28] | |
Final gearing | 2.85:1 | 3.36:1 | |
Gearing efficiency [26] | η—98% | η—97% | |
Drive wheels size | 315/70R22.5 = Tire radius ~500 mm |
Electric | DF | Diesel | |
---|---|---|---|
Semi weight [kg] | 8100 | 7000 | 7000 |
Payload [kg] * | 24,700 | 25,800 | 25,800 |
Power-to-Weight Ratio (kW/ton) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Vehicle | Electric | DF | Diesel | |
Eco Mode | Power Mode | |||
Semi only | 40.74 | 60.49 | 52.49 | 53.57 |
Semi with trailer only | 21.56 | 32.02 | 25.8 | 26.4 |
25% of the total weight of the possible freight load * | 15.36 | 22.81 | 17.77 | 18.16 |
50% of the total weight of the possible freight load * | 11.93 | 17.72 | 13.54 | 13.87 |
75% of the total weight of the possible freight load * | 9.50 | 14.48 | 10.93 | 11.18 |
Gross combination weight: 40 tons | 8.25 | 12.25 | 9.17 | 9.37 |
Electricity Production Mix [%] | Carbon Intensity, g CO2-eq/kWh | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Renewables | Nuclear | Gas | Oil | Coal | Other | ||
Poland | 21 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 69 | 7 | 657 |
France | 20 | 72 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 48 |
EU average | 33 | 25 | 19 | 2 | 20 | 1 | 269 |
China | 25 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 65 | 3 | 555 |
India | 19 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 71 | 2 | 708 |
USA | 18 | 19 | 33 | 1 | 28 | 1 | 401 |
Canada | 64 | 15 | 9 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 140 |
Diesel [63] | HVO | LNG | BioLNG | |
---|---|---|---|---|
WTT [CO2-eq/kg] | 0.76 | −2.71 | 1.34 | −2.48 |
TTW * [CO2/kg] | 3.18 | 3.10 | 2.75 | 2.75 |
WTW ** [CO2-eq/kg] | 3.94 | 0.39 [64] | 3.09 [65] | 0.27 [66] |
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Chojnowski, J.; Dziubak, T. Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market. Energies 2024, 17, 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018
Chojnowski J, Dziubak T. Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market. Energies. 2024; 17(5):1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018
Chicago/Turabian StyleChojnowski, Janusz, and Tadeusz Dziubak. 2024. "Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market" Energies 17, no. 5: 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018
APA StyleChojnowski, J., & Dziubak, T. (2024). Multi-Criteria Analysis of Semi-Trucks with Conventional and Eco-Drives on the EU Market. Energies, 17(5), 1018. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051018