Correlation between Generation Z in Hungary and the Motivating Factors to Do Volunteer Work in a Value-Based Approach

Abstract

The knowledge-based voluntary activity covered by the research, the pro bono, which will be introduced from the aspect of employer branding. The primary results of the research described in the study are the outcome of a quantitative data collection process, where 840 evaluable questionnaires were processed in the course of a pretested standardized questionnaire survey. On top of that, during the research we were able to confirm that the motivation of volunteering is connected to the individual values, hence it can be stated that the reason behind the unwillingness of young people less motivated towards volunteer work is the immature value orientation and often the lack of information, instead of the sharp isolation rooted in the values or the lack of empathy. The introduced results may provide practical guidance to the institutions and companies organizing pro bono activities, and especially to the organizations that intend to address the young generation.

1. Introduction

This paper presents the partial results of a seven-country study (Spain, Portugal, Bulgaria, France, Hungary, Portugal, Bulgaria) carried out in the framework of the Erasmus+ project “Boosting Employability and Empowering Social Engagement in High Education through Pro Bono”. Pro bono work and volunteering should play a key role in our daily lives, as there are many situations and problems that can be solved by joining forces and volunteering. The multitude of problems caused by globalization has brought this activity increasingly into the spotlight. Volunteering programs of this kind are increasingly becoming an important part of the retention and motivation tools of companies and businesses, as an employer branding activity that can enhance both corporate reputation and employee loyalty. The primary research findings presented in this paper are the results of a quantitative data collection exercise, in which 840 evaluable questionnaires were developed through a pre-tested standardized questionnaire survey. The condition for inclusion in the sample was that the respondent was a member of Generation Z. During the research, we found that young people are most motivated to develop, express themselves, their knowledge and their values at work.

We also found statistical evidence that motivation to volunteer is related to individual values, openness and empathy. The results presented in this study can provide practical guidance for institutions and companies organizing pro bono activities, especially for organizations that want to reach out to the younger generation. As a follow-up to the research, post-qualitative interviews with representatives of young people and companies organizing pro bono activities are planned to fine-tune the quantitative results and to obtain more nuanced information.

2. Literature Review

2.1. The Motivational Background of Volunteering

In modern societies volunteering is one of the forms of civic activity. It can be deemed efficient if the volunteer work is inherently linked to a local community or an association operating in a broader area and if several organizations are widely represented by doing volunteer work [1]. In an extensive study the International Labour Organization (ILO) tried to summarize the benefits of volunteering. As the ILO noted, in addition to its economic effects it can also realize significant advantages for the society or for the volunteers themselves. It provides access to the workforce, and it is able to create employment frameworks. Volunteering can contribute to the development goals. In the form of employment it could lead to such services that a paid employee would not be able to offer. Furthermore, it enhances social solidarity, and it strengthens social capital, political legitimacy and quality of life within the society. Volunteering can help promoting social inclusion and integration [2]. On top of the above, volunteer activity might result in others benefits as well. According to a 2018 study of Owen and Celik, activities like volunteering can contribute to our mental health, thus reinforcing the formation of a healthy society [3]. Mundle and her co-authors joined the previous thought. Volunteering had a positive health and welfare result for those who volunteered [4]. Several other studies confirmed the fact that many of the volunteers experienced milder depression and higher level of intellectual prosperity and satisfaction [5].

Morrow-Howell (2003) claimed that volunteering or still actively working old people have better mental and health characteristics, which verifies that volunteering does have a positive effect on our mental state [6,7]. According to Stukas and his co-authors, volunteer work, social contribution and voluntary physical assistance all serve the improvement of the quality of life. They believe that basic activities of people’s life would be interrupted if there were no volunteers. They mentioned specific examples such as schools, health clinics, animal shelters, but they referred to countless other organizations as well [8]. In addition to Stukas et al., many others also agree that prosocial values amplify volunteering [8,9]. Silló (2016) emphasizes that the meaning of volunteering today is entirely different from what it used to be a couple of decades ago [10]. It has evolved into a very complex social phenomenon, and these days anyone can be a volunteer. This can be largely explained by the generational differences. Betz (2019) highlights the fact that one of the reasons why generation Z is unlike the previous ones is that they grew up in the online world [11]. Adamson et al. (2017) concurred with this opinion and stated that in the case of generation Z access to information turned out to be completely different than what it had been with the earlier generations, and it significantly influenced their worldview [12]. In this context it can be acknowledged that the internet gave a new perspective to this generation. Betz (2019) underlines that the members of generation Z (the ones who were born between 1995 and 2009) have a unique way of thinking and they look at certain things differently, which is reflected in the field of volunteering too. In the study we will cite research results, according to which people above the age of 35 participate in volunteering in a larger proportion [13].

However, this trend seems to be changing and the Pew Research Center claims that generation Z deviate from the previous generations not just in their view of the world, but also in their openness and diversity. This kind of openness makes it possible for the increasingly younger members of society to take an active role in volunteer activities [14]. And volunteering means bringing pleasure not only to others but to ourselves as well, since volunteers find satisfaction and joy in their work [15]. The individuals may also undertake voluntary public or other type of tasks in order to strengthen their social role. Juknevičius-Savicka (2003) correlates volunteering with our respective roles in society [16]. It is an activity that we do for our environment free of charge, and we get moral recognition and appreciation in return [17] The latter is able to motivate (Figure 1.) us to undertake such tasks [18].

Anheier and his co-author (2001) go further [20]. In their opinion volunteering also shows what the commitment and involvement of the members of society are like, which basically describes what state the society is in. The volunteering is based on mutual benefits and gains, which again implies the existence of trust and turning to each other (healthy society). Coupled with this is the opinion of Van Willigen, who believe there is a strong link between volunteering and welfare [21]. Kuti (2007) published a quite extensive writing on the subject of volunteerism [22]. Based on their researches social assistance can appear in a variety of forms. Volunteering is only a fraction of this. In addition there are financial and in-kind assistances, but blood donation falls within this category too (Figure 2).

The social analysis of volunteering is not an easy task. Bekker et al. highlight that these researches usually have a key problem, namely that they do not allow for the exploration of cause and effect. More specifically, many studies are only about reporting what volunteer activities the subjects participated in during the preceeding weeks or months. On the other hand, considerably less researches conduct a correlation analysis from a deeper sociological, psychological, social or cultural point of view. In their essay the authors asked the question again: why do people volunteer? On top of this question it is also worth investigating how the individuals feel about volunteering. Wilson suggests to examine volunteering within a certain society through a process approach, for which he even recommends a process model (Wilson, 2012) [23]. It is clearly perceptible that we cannot draw broad conclusions merely from the number of volunteers introduced for the period in question. Luckily, some of the reasearches were not just curious about the number of volunteers. Stukas et al. made an observation with regard to the social efforts to attract volunteers, according to which the possible targets of recruitment can be divided into three groups. The first group contains people who are ready to do volunteer work. The second group will include the ones who are open to it, although it is not quite clear to even them whether they would participate in it for sure or not, whereas in the third group we can find people resistant to volunteering [8]. The background to all of this is that motivation towards volunteering can indeed vary in the case of individuals, and this motivation would be worth exploring. On the other hand, such control mechanisms can be detected that might inspire the individuals to do volunteer work.

Bekkers et al. noted seven mechanisms that are able to boost the role of volunteering in the society:

• altruism: the rise in needs increase volunteering. This is related to social welfare. In a more challenged (poorer) society there might be a greater demand for volunteering.
• awareness of need: asking people directly can enhance the need for volunteering. When the members of society express their needs towards giving, it provides definitive evidence for its importance.
• costs and benefits: Smaller costs and mutual benefits strengthen volunteering. If the emergence of mutual benefits is confirmed, it solidifies the role of giving.
• reputation: the power of publicity expands the recognition of volunteering. Wider introduction of good examples and good practices is able to promote giving, thereby offering positive examples and affirmation for everybody.
• psichological costs and benefits: avoidance of certain psychological costs (guilt, anxiety), complience with personal standards and boosting a certain kind of self-image motivate volunteering.
• values: volunteering is determined by the values of the individuals. Mutuality, social responsibility or the principle of care appear among these prosocial values.
• efficacy: a more effective way of providing services to beneficiaries increases the need for volunteering [9].

2.2. Organizations That Support Volunteering

Volunteering can also often enable us to acquire professional experience in an international environment. In an international environment we get a chance to work with others. In the case of certain more significant international projects volunteers arrive from several countries, and knowingly or unknowingly, but they come into contact with each other. In such situations volunteers can show an incredibly colourful picture in terms of gender or age as well. Although some of the researches [13,22] pointed out that certain age groups are more represented in volunteering, much more diversified volunteer groups can be seen in respect of international projects. Based on the results of Lee and Won, the known assessment indicators of volunteering—such as age and gender—do not give a satisfactory explanation regarding the participation in international volunteering [24].

The process of international volunteering has begun to really unfold from the 1970s. The expansion of globalization acted as a catalyst in this process, since freedom of movement became accessible in more and more areas in our lives. In fact, one of the greatest achievements of the creation of the European Union was the Principle of Four Freedoms, which made the unhindered movement of people (and workforce) possible within the Union. All this had a favorable affect on the evolution of internation volunteering. This process has been supported by such international initiatives as for example the European Voluntary Service (EVS). EVS is an international volunteer program, financed by the European Commission. It gave an opportunity to young people between the age of 18 and 30 to serve as volunteers at a business or state actor in Europe, Africa, Asia or South America for a period of 2 to 12 months. From 2018 EVS has been operating as the European Solidarity Corps (ESC), which further aims to involve as many young people in volunteer activities as possible (Figure 3). The statement of Betz (2019) and the Pew Research Center (2018) is confirmed by the statistical data of the European Solidarity Corps too. On this basis the younger generation’s participation rate in volunteer works is indeed in the rise, given that after the age of 23 participation in volunteer activities show a declining trend again [25]

Numerous researchers put international volunteering in the centre of their study. Lough and Tiessen mention that initially the groups of young people focused on international labour volunteering, and the centre of these programs were peace-related activities, or establishing common interests and understanding among people of different cultures. Other experts also drew the attention to the differences between international volunteer programs [26,27,28]. In the 1970s the international volunteer programs could be distinguished along two basic objectives. We consider the year as the starting point, because this era was the beginning of the fulfilment of globalization. It is illustrative for this period that the international agreements—such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)—and the EU’s aspirations for a common market exert their effects on international trade and simultaneously on international factor mobility, which, as we know, the free movement of persons is a part of. The GDP of the world tells the most about the changes in world economy after 1970, and the GDP rose explosively in the years following 1970. All this is closely linked to the removal of obstacles standing in the way of factor mobility and to the ever-tighter convergence of national economies. And all this has a positive influence on volunteer programs too (Figure 4).

Certain programs were known to be primarily participant-focused, hence they carried mutual benefits especially for a particular circle of stakeholders. Furthermore, those also had to be highlighted that were trying to find a solution for a wider portion of society or for their complex problems. These international volunteer programs typically had social-oriented goals [26,27]. International volunteering differs from domestic volunteering not just in showing a more diverse age composition in respect of volunteers. All this is necessary to be reviewed in order to understand the most important characteristics of volunteering and the motivational factors behind it. Another significant question is to whom it is directed in particular, and therefore the volunteer program can even have an impact on the volunteer comminity itself. Furco (1996) called attention to this too, when he said that international volunteering can have two basic functions [28].

We need to distinguish between programs focusing on the volunteer as the beneficiary, and the ones focusing on the receiving community or organization as the beneficiary. So in this context the volunteers and the receiving community or organization can all be beneficiaries. Sherraden et al. (2006) also made a distinction between volunteer programs [29]. Instead of concentrating on the beneficiaries, they put the effects on them at the heart of their concept. Volunteering needs to be separated in terms of development goals, humanitarian goals and international understanding. Development goals can be achieved for both the beneficiaries and the volunteers. Humanitarian goals serve the promotion of human and human rights interests, whereas international understanding is accomplished for the sake of mutual acceptance, social cohesion and the cohesion of the community in a broader sense. A similar tipology was formed by

Plewes and Stuart as well, who claimed that volunteer programs materialize under the development model, learning model and the model of strenthening civil society [30]. Within the development model volunteers contribute to achieving various development objectives in order to support economic development and to decrease poverty. In the learning model of volunteering the voluntary activities focus on the development of the volunteer’s personal and professional abilities and competences [31]. This is where the support of intercultural understanding and acceptance or the most diverse forms of cooperation appear, even in a wider sense, on a global scale. In the third model volunteering aims at strengthening the civil society. Democratic participation and the reinforcement of local civil societies play a key role in this. Another advantage of international volunteering is that volunteers may not only come from different age groups, but in many cases their professional affiliation is also highly miscellaneous. Individuals of all kinds of professions and interests can be found among the volunteers. In such a community the volunteers are able to learn how to work in a team and how to communicate and cooperate in the most effective way. The role and benefits of volunteering is confirmed by several above cited studies as well [4,5,6,7,21]. Volunteer programs might have a positive impact on the volunteers themselves too. International volunteering also helps with improving the capabilities of people who volunteer. They can take part in events, trainings, various educational and further training programs, but even the volunteers can organize such affairs or get involved with their coordination. These training and further training opportunities are able to improve countless professional and personal competences. In the most general sense, the communication of individuals could be developed, the ability to cooperate and organize could be improved, the trust in others could be increased, and last but not least, volunteers could become a lot more open and direct.

Participation in international volunteer programs can help with managing the challenges better, since volunteers might have to face many challenges and problems themselves in the course of the programs. Although it cannot be stated that volunteer activity is widespread throughout the society, international volunteering is becomin more and more dominant [32]. According to the analyses of Meneghini, an increasing number of people are taking a break from their studies or their profession, just to undertake longer or shorter volunteer works abroad. Meneghini also agrees with the statement of Bekkers and his co-authors [9]. The researches on the motivation of volunteers are rather limited. More comprehensive and thorough researches would be necessary to be able to understand the individuals’ motivations related to international volunteering. However, based on the previously reviewed literature, it can be established in terms of both the domestic and international volunteering that voluntary activities are advantageous for the individual and for the beneficiary as well, while volunteers can also develop themselves, learn something, or fulfill some other personal motivations or needs of theirs.

Mundle et al. tried to summarize the areas where voluntary activities can mostly be present. Their study revealed that volunteering can usually be found in health care, counselling, science projects, family support, home care, fundraising, donations or homeless care [4]. Surprisingly, there is a significant assistance of volunteers in connection with several sports events too [33]. According to their research the Hungarian society can mostly be characterized with providing financial assistance, so donation is the most typical of the Hungarians. Volunteering falls well short in this regard, where mainly people over 35 are represented, and usually more men sign up to do voluntary work than women [22], (NÖS, 2012–2020) [13]. The role of volunteering has begun to be more valuable, and not only to the indicators examining the state of society. After 2010 the European Union initiated the establishment of a statistical methodology that effectively analyses volunteering several times. They suggested the creation of a uniform formula for both its measurement and for its definition. In a working paper of the European Economic and Social Committee (ECO) volunteering was defined as follows: an unpaid non-compulsory activity involving productive work that are not for use by own household [13].

This is closely related to the statement that volunteering indeed sets out the goal of generating values for others, thus it can exist for community value creation. The importance of the role of volunteering is also greatly enhanced by the attempt of developing its own measurement methodology. The situation of volunteerism is a subject under discussion not just in the European Union, but in Hungary too. The elaboration of the National Volunteer Strategy and Action Plan has been started, which determines the objectives regarding domestic volunteerism between 2021 and 2030. Taking the previous results into consideration, they intend to design new priorities and action plans, for which they also wanted to get the business community engaged. The new long term strategy will be much needed, since it was difficult to have a social consultation on the former one, and the numbers of both the nonprofit enterprises and the volunteers have dropped in recent years (

Table 1. Forms of social assistance.

	Indicators
Period	Number of Nonprofit Organizations (Pc.)	Number of Volunteers (Pc.)
2003	53.022	399.910
2004	55.197	448.004
2005	56.694	371.739
2006	58.242	437.893
2007	62.407	472.353
2008	64.925	402.537
2009	66.145	426.697
2010	64.987	418.407
2011	65.561	481.976
2012	65.255	503.713
2013	64.542	490.062
2014	63.894	489.897
2015	62.152	412.893
2016	61.616	418.655
2017	61.151	364.407
2018	61.491	399.328
2019	60.890	365.642

Source: Own compilation based on HCSO data.

).

2.3. Appearance of Volunteering in the Life of the Enterprises, the Importance of CSR

Volunteering requires some sort of human, cultural and social capital from the individuals [34]. According to this wording, volunteering is indeed a type of measure of the state of society. Where there is no social capital, the level of volunteering cannot be high either. The organizations usually turn towards volunteering more frequently, and it is especially illustrated in their CSR projects. It is a more widely expected behaviour from the organizations and companies to do something for their immediate environment. Volunteering of individuals is basically restricted to the previously mentioned donations. The World’s Most Generous Countries Report published by Gallup notes that although many people give money to charities in Hungary too, we still underperform in terms of donations [35]. The earlier studies of Eurobarometer do not consider our country frontrunners either with regard to volunteering [36].

The flash reports made by special committees of the European Union came to the same conclusion. The above HCSO (Hungarian Central Statistical Office) table unambiguously confirms that the number of nonprofit organizations and volunteers are on the decline. An improvement can be brought about by NÖS 2021–2030, the EU politics supporting volunteerism, and finally the environmental changes that valorize the role of volunteering (e.g., Coronavirus Disease 2019 (SARS-COV-2). With the changes of the modern era volunteering appears in more and more areas of our lives. Fellowship care has pressed forward beside animal- and environmental protection, fight against starvation or poverty, climate protection and other fields. Caring for the elderly, helping the families and supporting children have gained more appreciation during the pandemic.

Co-authors Fényes and Kiss have already outlined the increase in the role of volunteering much earlier (2011) [37]. In their view the crisis of welfare societies, the changing work schedules and the growing amount of leisure time all contribute to the strengthening of volunteerism. On top of that it must be highlighted that in many cases the inactivity and problem solving ability of governments also enhance the willingness for social engagement. The stronger inclination for volunteering in individuals can affect the organizations too. Companies turn towards volunteering programs and CSR projects in a more targeted way by taking advantage of their opportunities and greater capital strength. They use donations, charitable contributions, financial aid, but they may also carry out many other activities that create community value [38].

The community value-adding activities of the organizations are highly determined by the behaviour of the individuals, and therefore it is a relevant question for the organizations as well how they can involve different generations in such activities. In Weissman’s opinion volunteering also increases the value of the employees. For one thing, new abilities will be part of the organization this way. Voluntary activity helps to generate networks, through which an organization is capable of obtaining important new relationships and partners. Volunteering can even assist with career building, as the employees might gain prestige with its help, and it can also promote their qualifications and professional development [39]. Boston and Banta (2020) noted that the way of spending our leisure time can essentially be determined by the things we are passionate about. If our activity does not provide energy or some extra motivation for us, then it will be a missed opportunity for everyone who would otherwise profit from it [40]. We can basically conclude that there must be something behind the voluntary activities that fills us with enthusiasm or motivate us, so the resulting benefits would appear as much as possible.

From the volunteer’s perspective these opportunities might even offer chances for advancement or career development. Based on former studies, people above the age of 35 participated in volunteer works in a higher proportion [13], however, with the emergence of generation Z this trend is changing [14,25]. According to McFadden (2017), it would be imperative to show to the younger generations what mutual benefits could materialize from certain voluntary tasks that create values for a broader section of society, thereby promoting their even greater participation [41]. Assistance could come from the HR management of the organization, or from its specialized branch, which can also be dubbed as volunteering management [42].

For the above reasons we need to examine the generational features, and the different generations’ perception and relationship towards society and the assessment of volunteering. One of the important theoretical basis of the study is constituted by the concept of generational-marketing, in which we endeavour to describe the consumer characteristics related to generation Z. The focus group of our primary research is generation Z, which is called by various names by the literature. They are the “new conservatives”, “Facebook generation”, “digital natives”, generation “instant online”, net generation, but they are given the name iGeneration too. The members of the examined generation were born between 1995 and 2010, although several literature sources differ in that regard; some of them push the generation boundaries out, while others move them in. However, in terms of characteristics they undoubtedly and significantly alter from the previous generations. They are the ones being raised by the X generation and they experience events never seen before. The degradation of the environment, the coronavirus outbreak and the conflicts between nations all become a part of their lives [43], usually from their childhood onward. The digital world is in their bones, in fact, it is where they feel the most comfortable, almost substituting the physical space.

They are often called generation C after the word ‘connection’, but also generation D that refers to the word ‘digital’ or R, which derives from the term ‘responsibility’ [44]. They are the first global generation of the world, who grow up on the same culture and like the same food, fashion and places. It is typical of their linguistic toolkit as well that modern techniques, information technology and the online world came of age with them and became a part of their personality. This also has an effect on their communication, as they know how to move around and communicate in the online world, whereas personal contact and social interaction can make them nervous a lot of times. One further important feature of this generation is experience seeking, which is woven into the fabric of their everyday lives, and it is decisive in choosing their sports and past time activities, in their culture consumption habits, and last but not least, in their job choices [45].

Based on the results of numerous researches, the constant digital presence causes dramatic changes in their behaviour too. Many studies consider these changes positive, while others are concerned about them, and it is yet unforeseeable how long they are going to last, and whether they become basic features of the generation or they vanish by mature adulthood, ensuring continuity with the basic characteristics of the former generations [46]. Childbearing gets delayed due to the hedonism typical of generation, hence they remain kids longer. In many cases the increasing relevance of the individuals and self interest brings such narcissistic traits to the surface that will affect their attitude towards work and even towards society [47]. They received appropriate education in several fields, for example the majority of the education programs was actually aimed at them. They also have a different concept for the term social responsibility. In their eyes the new technologies, the new and digitalized monetary system (new digital currencies, digital banking, fintech innovations) and the unlimited availability of goods are evident facts.

The other theoretical pillar is Pro Bono, a special voluntary activity based on professional knowledge transfer, which is the subject of this research. It is about young university students supporting nonprofit organizations in specific professional issues and projects in the form of volunteer work under the guidance of corporate specialists. On top of the nonprofit organizations that receive aid, it also has many benefits both for the universities and the companies. It is beneficial for the employer, because pro bono fits perfectly into the employer branding strategy: it gives an opportunity for the employees to work together with other organizations while broadening their knowledge and practical skills, and thereby creating social values. It is able to take the colleagues’ mind off the routine tasks, whereas serving a noble cause related to the corporate culture can make them feel good. This increases employee satisfaction and enhances loyalty and motivation. Given that the program is built on team work, it is an excellent tool for the development of intra-group cooperation and project approach as well.

Pro bono is a great opportunity for corporate HR too to recruit and find future colleagues and talents: the professional competence and social skills of the participating volunteer students can be assessed in the course of a live project. Personnel selection through such a process carries considerably less chance for error than the traditional methods (tests, interviews). In the current labour relations landscape, which is characterized by an ever-growing demand for workforce all throughout Europe, HR needs every tool that can help in finding and keeping adequate manpower [48], but it can even be perceived as a certain form of education that aims at the strengthening and development of entrepreneurial roles, which is of paramount importance across the educational spectrum [49]. The voluntary knowledge transfer of students is a good opportunity to pass on the new approach, the agility typical of generation Z, which the nonprofit organizations and the small and medium-sized enterprises are equally lack of. The different knowledge attitudes and competences of the younger generation arm the mentored organizations and their personnel with new abilities [50]. The programs implemented with the support of large corporations have numerous advantages. Pro bono brings adequate benefits for the participating universities as well: Through the program the universities are able to strengthen the practice orientation of the courses and broaden their corporate relationships, and in addition such events are also suitable for the sensitization of the teacher colleagues towards volunteering.

3. Material and Method

In this study, in addition to the systematic process of relevant national and international literature, we would like to present the partial results of our primary research. During the research we conducted a quantitative primary procedure, a pre-tested standardized online questionnaire survey. Closed questions—in particular selective, semantic differential scale, Likert scale and rating scale types of questions were used in the questionnaire. The filter condition in the course of sampling was that by age the respondents had to be members of generation Z. In total we received 840 evaluable questionnaires from Hungary via snowball sampling.

Besides systematically processing the relevant domestic and international literature, in this study we also introduce the partial results of our primary research, thus increasing the number of researches dealing with this topic. The quantitative primary analysis took place within the framework of an international research project with the participation of Hungarian, Bulgarian, French, Portuguese and Spanish researchers, in the form of a pretested standardized online questionnaire survey in each participating countries.

The subjects were recruited for each sampling unit through a snowball sampling, as a result of which we received 840 evaluable samples in Hungary. In the study we focus on showing the partial results of this survey.

For the sake of future comparability the research tool was the same in all the countries involved in the project. The standardized questionnaire contained only closed questions. On top of nominal measurement levels—selective questions with single or multiple choice—there were rating scale questions too, and in addition we examined the respondents’ attitude and value orientation towards volunteering on a Likert scale. Attitude towards volunteering was evaluated in a triple relation during the survey: by assessing the cognitive, affective and conative phases in order to get a more accurate picture on the homogeneity of the components of attitude and on the possible existence of cognitive dissonance. A scale of 1 to 7 was used for the scale questions in the hope of receiving more differentiated results and also due to the international nature of the research, since there were Portuguese, Spanish, French and Bulgarian participants as well, and therefore we had to choose an internationally accepted scale value [51].

Development of the research tool’s themes was the result of the relevant secondary data evaluation. Finalization of the response alternatives—pre-testing of the research tool—was done in light of the qualitative results in each country. As a part of this qualitative research phase, 10 mini focus group interviews were conducted in Hungary through the application of a semi-structured interview outline. The qualitative sampling was also performed by the snowball sampling. The mini focuses were all guided group conversations heterogeneous in terms of sex and age, with the participation of 3–4 people in each case. The main objective of the qualitative research was to establish the grounds for the quantitative research, to finalize the standardized questionnaire and to outline the hypotheses of the research.

Our primary goal during the quantitative research was to examine the hypothesis, according to which the differences between the attitudes towards volunteering correlate with the values of the individuals. (H1)

A factor analysis was conducted on the tested values as the first step for examining the hypothesis, and on the basis of its results the sample was segmented with K-means clustering procedure. In the case of the thereby created value-based segments the correlation between the values and the willingness to volunteer was proven by the significance level of Pearson’s chi-square probe, whereas the evaluation of the internal contexts was based on the absolute value of the adjusted standardized residuals.

Considering the socio-demographic features it can be stated that the sample was balanced: 52% women, 48% men. The distribution of the subjects by place of residence showed that most (55%) of the respondents were inhabitants of the capital, and 45% of the sample still lived with their parents. With regard to the highest level of education the respondents with secondary education were in absolute majority (72.8%). The influence of the family as the smallest social background can be a determining factor from several aspects—even in the context of attitude towards volunteering. This is why the education level of the subjects’ parents was analysed too. According to the results, in the case of both the mothers (55%) and the fathers (58%) the ones with secondary education outnumbered the others, but the proportion of the parents completed tertiary education was also decisive within the sample (40% and 37%).

4. Results

At first, in a separate set of questions, we evaluated how well the respondents knew the type of volunteering based on professional knowledge, the significance of Pro Bono activity. Only 10% of the members constituting the sample had heard about the term Pro Bono before, which is a substantially low figure. This result alone foresaw that the emphasis should be put on the first pillar of promoting Pro Bono activities, i.e., on increasing awareness (education). On the basis of the specifities of marketing communication campaigns that take the market access process into consideration, it can be said that as long as the young generation is not familiar with Pro Bono volunteering and does not know exactly what its essence is—or in other words until the cognitive part of the attitude is not sufficiently grounded—they cannot enter the affective and conative phases.

The necessity of the education campaign was further enhanced by the result of the research in respect of the spontaneous associations related to Pro Bono. The results pointed out that the majority of the subjects did not know what the term meant. However, the answers of the ones that had already heard about it clearly attested to a positive attitude: “it is a cost-effective solution”, “an assistance based on knowledge sharing, which is beneficial to both parties”, “I have already been involved in such a program, and it felt really good to help”. All of this therefore shows that the ones who had heard of the program or had participated in such an activity reacted in an absolute positive way to Pro Bono, which is definitely a satisfactory outcome. Most of the respondents would love to take part in a voluntary activity based on knowledge sharing—despite the fact that they didn’t know the expression and had never even heard it before-, and this result also confirms the positive approach (

Table 2. Willingness in participation in voluntary programs based on knowledge sharing (%).

“Would You Like to be Part of a Volunteer Program where You Could Help Foundations OR Organizations by Sharing Your Expertise and Experience?”	Frequency (%)
(a) yes, I would be happy to participate in such a program	28.9%
(b) yes, I would be happy to attend, but only if I knew the organization who will be helped	21.8%
(c) yes, I would be happy to attend, but only if I am not alone participating (e.g., working in small groups or with the supervision of a more experienced professional)	40.9%
(d) under no circumstances I would participate in such a program	8.4%

Source: Own research, N = 840.

).

In the course of the research it was also analysed what kind of communication channels would be the most effective for delivering the message of a campaign promoting knowledge-based volunteering to the youth. The results unambiguously showed consistency with the media preferences of the examined generation: they make decisions regarding the conditions of participating in volunteer programs like Pro Bono mainly—according to the statements of the subjects—on the basis of recommendations and opinions of friends and family members, or the shares in social platforms visited by them, and in terms of information gathering they would prefer the social media platforms of nonprofit organizations popularizing such programs (

Table 3. Information gathering about possible volunteer programs (relative %).

Methods	Relative %
(a) personal recommendation from friends and acquaintances	86.4%
(b) shared posts/events/etc. from friends and acquaintances on social platforms (facebook, instagram, etc.)	54.5%
(c) from the organization’s own website	27.3%
(d) from the organization’s own social media site (facebook, instagram, etc.)	38.2%
(e) LinkedIn site	15.5%
(f) posters, public ads on streets	16.4%
(h) published on TV	4.0%
(i) published on radio	5.5%

Source: Own research, N = 840.

).

Secondly, we evaluated the attitude towards volunteering, how open the subjects were to take part in a volunteer program, and what type of activities were performed by the ones who had already been volunteers. The highest ratio within the sample (42.2%) was represented by the ones who had not been involved in volunteer programs yet, but would be keen to try them. They were followed by young people (39.9%) who had volunteered before and would love to do it again. The ones displaying a negative attitude in the direction of volunteering had the smallest percentage (17%): they had not participated in such programs and had no intention to join this one either. The second set of questions was dealing with the attitude about volunteering and how open the respondents were to attend a volunteer program: children’s programs (30.4%) and programs helping animals and (homeless) people in need (26%) were the most popular amongst the ones who had already volunteered earlier in their lives. While evaluating the motivation for participating in volunteer works I’ve noticed that the young generation is inspired by the development of their existing skills and knowledge the most, and by the possibility of obtaining new skills, knowledge and experience (Table 1). In other words the particularity of the generation echoes in the participation in volunteering too: strong individualism, given that the improvement of one’s own skills and by how much and how the subjects can become more through these programs is still the strongest motivational factor behind even such activities. In the ranking this was followed by the belief that the fate of humanity and our environment depends on our actions and that the world can be changed via volunteer activities (

Table 4. Motivations for participating in volunteering among young people in Hungary.

Motivational Directions	Rating Average (Where 1 = Not Important at All, 7 = Most Important)
To develop my existing skills and knowledge	5.79
To obtain new skills, knowledge and experiences	5.76
The fate of humanity and our environment depends on our actions.	5.71
These actions can also change the world.	5.03
To try myself and to test my abilities	5.22
To meet new people and to acquire new friends	4.75
To feel better about myself	3.65
To learn how people satisfy their needs	3.55
To feel less alone	3.43

Source: Own research, N = 840.

).

During the research we assumed (H1 hypothesis) that the differences in attitudes towards volunteering show a correlation with the values of individuals. Numerous consumer behaviour models were built on the concept that the final decision of consumers depends on the orientation of values, and the decision itself is a projection of the personal value system [52,53]. We had already managed to confirm the connection between values and consumer decisions in several of our earlier studies for differing consumer markets, products and services as well [54]. As the first step of testing this hypothesis (H1a), we conducted a factor analysis on the list of values used in the research in order to find out what value dimensions are linked according to the value judgement of the young generation. We evaluated four, five- and six-factor trials. The five-factor method has proved to be the best solution, both professionally and methodically (

Table 5. Rotated factor matrix.

	Factors
Statements Related to Values	“Advent-Urousness, Hedonism” Factor	“Will to Act, Desire for Recognition”	“Empathy, Social Sensitivity”	“Self-Centered-Ness, Low Social Sensitivity”	“Self-Will, Inflexibility”
I enjoy taking risks	0.8346	−0.169272	0.0273927	−0.0501882	0.131448
I love adventures and trying new, exciting things	0.660026	0.0959874	−0.014761	0.0668645	−0.076477
I like making decisions and acquiring wealth and social status	0.605549	−0.164056	0.0578431	0.1008488	0.331917
When I don’t know something, I’m not afraid to admit it	0.544227	0.4229109	−0.152735	−0.2268132	0.021021
We have to take risks in order to achieve something in life	0.44882	0.1780279	0.2008603	0.3761577	−0.080054
I could never think of someone else being punished for my wrongdoings	−0.099375	0.7509963	−0.138543	0.1463021	−0.026105
I like protecting nature and supporting equality and social justice	0.250792	0.6565009	−0.008227	−0.2103044	−0.007895
I am always polite, even to those who I don’t sympathise with	−0.114288	0.5648716	0.2230724	0.0054619	0.035489
I like spending time on challenges that make the world a better place	0.294914	0.4991698	0.117024	−0.030607	0.103339
Sometimes I take offense when I don’t get my way	0.040147	−0.2059	0.7851717	0.1858399	0.043167
I smile when I see old couples holding each other’s hands	−0.0293	0.3518213	0.5774629	−0.0681371	−0.004052
I like living in a stable and sound environment and avoiding activities that can put my safety at risk	−0.019205	−0.023039	0.5098532	−0.2390666	0.426086
When I see people suffer, I wonder how they feel in that bad situation	0.255179	0.3352441	0.4418067	−0.0646246	−0.250555
Sometimes I find people annoying who ask me for a favour	−0.129131	0.0473033	−0.179317	0.6813488	0.353999
It is very difficult for me to visit a sick person	−0.025033	−0.249437	−0.015234	0.6727124	0.087577
Ideally I would live all my days as if they were my last	0.382897	0.1252145	0.1669569	0.5295142	−0.160603
My life is defined by work the most	0.186159	0.0047514	−0.025506	0.0170211	0.631369
Sometimes I have problems with seeing things from a different perspective	−0.371577	−0.042301	0.1684979	0.0444436	0.629243
My life is mostly determined by what is happening in the world	0.215754	0.0938915	−0.045928	0.2405174	0.483809

Source: Own research, N = 840; KMO = 0.677, total variance = 51.4%.

):

−

The first factor was “Adventurousness, hedonism”, with statements prioritizing risk-taking, which included statements prioritizing risk-taking, with the highest factor weight (0.83) being “enjoyment of risk-taking,” followed by trying adventures and exciting things (0.66). The importance of a stable and sound environment had a negative rating in this factor group—not surprisingly.

−

The dimension of “Will to act, desire for recognition” contained statements that emphasized recognition for good deeds and activities improving the world. With the highest factor weight (0.75), the attitude that did not want to blame anyone else for their own mistakes dominated the group.

−

The factor of “Empathy, social sensitivity” was constituted of values highlighting the intention of improving and helping others, unsurprisingly, with the highest factor weight (0.78), it is precisely the “offense due to disincentives to do” that has been included.

−

The factor of “Self-centeredness, low social sensitivity” could be characterized with values and attitudes that find helping others difficult to accept, and are therefore less open to it. The most striking element in this group (0.68) is the statement that the favor of others is particularly annoying to the individual.

−

The group of “Self-will, inflexibility” dominantly consisted of factors like for example “it is hard for me to accept other people’s opinion or will”, most strongly (0.63) the commitment to work and the difficulty of examining things from other aspects (0.62) influence the value system of the group of factors.

The second step (H1b) was to perform a K-means cluster analysis on the factor groups. As a result we were able to identify five fairly distinctive target groups (

Table 6. Value-based segments among generation Z in Hungary.

	Clusters
Factors	“The Ones Willing to Act and Desiring Recognition” N = 139	“The Socially Sensitive” N = 159	“The Inflexible with Strong Self-Awareness” N = 165	“Adventurer Hedonists” N = 213	“The Ones without Preferences” N = 164
“Adventurousness, hedonism”	−0.610016	−0.471604	0.0938754	0.57513678	0.132828
“Will to act, desire for recognition”	0.7905724	0.2105979	−1.104374	0.545713	−0.47189
“Empathy, social sensitivity”	−0.589847	0.7333361	0.4001184	0.43068533	−1.17297
“Self-centeredness, low social sensitivity”	−0.687868	−0.294443	−0.310234	0.69089134	0.283285
“Self-will, inflexibility”	0.562782	−1.11791	0.7825956	0.30676765	−0.57896

Source: Own research, N = 840.

):

−

The first group is “The ones willing to act and desiring recognition”, who believe in their ability to make the world a better place and are looking for opportunities to do so, and in addition they are also longing for social recognition for their efforts.

−

The second group is “The socially sensitive”, people who are the most sensitive to social and environmental problems and when they are wrong, they are ready to admit it, which shows a personality that is able and willing to develop.

−

The third segment is “The inflexible with strong self-awareness” cluster, which consists of young people with self-will and inflexibility as their most typical features. They are the ones who rarely change their opinions, and they are easily offended if they don’t get their way.

−

The fourth group is “The adventurer hedonists”, who are less sensitive to social issues and other people’s problems, but on the other hand they love it when their lives are full of adventure and joy.

−

The fifth segment is for “The ones without preferences”, who did not rate any of the factor groups higher than the other segments. They are young people, whose value system is still evolving, and as a consequence they can sometimes be easily influenced.

For verification of the H1 hypothesis, with the help of Pearson’s chi-squared test we proved the correlation between the segments created by the K-means procedure and the willingness to volunteer. (H1 has been confirmed). Its direction was assessed through adjusted standardized residuals. In light of this we could see that compared to the expected value the “Socially sensitive” subjects were in the majority among the ones who had participated in volunteer programs before and would love to continue this kind of work. In the group of respondents who had not been involved in volunteer programs yet “The ones without preferences” had the highest numbers, compared to the expected values, which is a value orientation not particularly typical of the group of young people who are motivated and open to volunteering (

Table 7. Participation in volunteer activity, program, or project.

	“Have You ever Participated in any Volunteer Activity, Program, or Project?”
Clusters	%/ Adjusted Standardized Residual	I Have and I Would Love to Participate again in Volunteer Programs	I haven’t, but I Would Love to Participate in Volunteer Programs	I haven’t, and I don’t even Want to Participate in Volunteer Programs
“The inflexible with strong self-awareness”	column %	14.02	16.66	21.85
	adjusted standardized residual	−1.59	0.07	1.93
“The socially sensitive”	column %	20.00	18.07	18.54
	adjusted standardized residual	2.645	−0.53	−0.13
“The ones willing to act and desiring recognition”	column %	21.49	20.33	13.90
	adjusted standardized residual	1.09	0.43	−1.95
“Adventurer hedonists”	column %	28.95	26.27	15.23
	adjusted standardized residual	1.95	0.51	−3.15
“The ones without preferences”	column %	15.52	18.64	30.46
	adjusted standardized residual	−2.38	−0.54	3.74

Source: Own research, N = 840, sig = 0.000.

).

On the basis of the results we believed that a strategically well structured education campaign and motivation-enhancing emotional messages are the most suitable means for engaging young people with immature set of values. Because the reason behind their lack of motivation is not that they are socially less sensitive or too self-centred, but rather their undeveloped and therefore missing value orientation.

5. Conclusions and Discussion

The pro bono volunteering introduced in the study represents an excellent opportunity for the companies to strengthen their corporate reputation, and also in terms of personnel recruitment and retention, which is becoming increasingly more important from the aspect of labour market challenges throughout Europe. This is one of the reasons why there are more appreciation towards the role of those results that are able to explain how generation Z with its growing significance in the labour market can be motivated into such programs. The various motivation-based and value-based theories and tools analysed in this research can be a major asset for applying the best incentives to promote volunteering among generation Z. According to the outcome of the research, the main motivation for young people—in line with the value approach typical of this generation—to participate in volunteer programs is personal fulfilment, self-development and the extension of their skills. Since information is important for both the university and corporate actors, for the sake of finding out how the youth could be motivated to join the pro bono activity we examined whether the relationship to volunteering is correlated to the values of the individuals. Because several consumer behavioural studies acknowledged that the best way to get an explanation for what lies behind consumer decisions is through the evaluation of personal values. As a result of this research we were able to confirm that there is a connection between values and the motivation to get involved in volunteer programs. Furthermore, it was also found that the lack of motivation towards volunteering cannot be explained by the social insensitiveness of young people. The pro bono volunteer programs could be successfully promoted with the help of an education campaign adjusted to the young generation’s lifestyle and way of thinking. We intend to complement the present quantitative phase of the research with expert interviews covering the corporate side in order to deepen the results. In addition we plan to conduct mini focus group interviews concentrating on generation Z to understand the attitude of young people towards volunteering in a more nuanced way.