Social Inclusion, Innovation and Food Security in West Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Social Inclusion, Agriculture and Food Security
2.2. Innovation, Agriculture and Food Security
3. Methodology
3.1. Model Specification
3.2. Sources of Data and Measurement of Variables
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis
4.2. Estimates from POLS and Fixed Effects
4.3. Estimates from System Generalised Method of Moments
5. Summary and Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variable | Identifier | Measurement | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Food Security | FS | Food Production index | WDI |
Social inclusion | SI | Scale of 1 (lowest) to 6 (highest). The higher, the better. | CPIA |
Innovation | INOV | Mobile internet subscription (% of total population) | WDI |
Agricultural employment | AE | Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modelled ILO estimate) | WDI |
Control of Corruption | CC | Estimate of standard normal distribution. Ranges from −2.5 (lowest) to 2.5 (highest). The higher the better | WGI |
Government Effectiveness | GE | Estimate of standard normal distribution. It ranges from −2.5 (lowest) to 2.5 (highest). The higher, the better | WGI |
Foreign Direct Investment | FDI | Foreign direct investment, net inflows (% of GDP) | WDI |
FS | SI | INOV | GE | FDI | AE | CC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | 122.9613 | 3.278571 | 55.89988 | −0.771516 | 4.953100 | 51.59232 | −0.614802 |
Maximum | 201.2200 | 4.300000 | 138.8100 | 0.353523 | 32.30119 | 77.99800 | 0.950176 |
Minimum | 75.58000 | 2.200000 | 2.070000 | −1.642998 | −1.048196 | 29.65200 | −1.552299 |
Std. Dev. | 22.56817 | 0.458864 | 34.75339 | 0.454421 | 5.864468 | 14.60796 | 0.551200 |
FS | SI | INOV | GE | FDI | AE | CC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FS | 1 | ||||||
SI | −0.0263 | 1 | |||||
INOV | 0.3698 | 0.2742 | 1 | ||||
GE | −0.1789 | 0.8318 | 0.2384 | 1 | |||
FDI | 0.3245 | 0.0618 | −0.037 | −0.0754 | 1 | ||
AE | 0.1949 | −0.275 | −0.3955 | −0.2442 | 0.3466 | 1 | |
CC | −0.1673 | 0.8274 | 0.258 | 0.8906 | −0.0587 | −0.2447 | 1 |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | −154.62 * (0.000) | −143.96 * (0.000) | −164.90 * (0.000) | −148.42 * (0.000) |
Social Inclusion | 47.99 * (0.000) | 47.88 * (0.000) | 48.25 * (0.000) | d47.86 * (0.000) |
Innovation | 5.16 * (0.004) | 5.43 * (0.004) | 4.90 * (0.006) | 5.10 * (0.005) |
Government Effectiveness | 1.17 (0.520) | |||
Foreign Direct Investment | 3.56 ** (0.050) | 4.27 ** (0.024) | 3.78 ** (0.037) | 3.52 ** (0.053) |
Agriculture Employment | −1.91 (0.412) | |||
Control of corruption | 3.29 *** (0.083) | |||
R-squared | 0.8007 | 0.8030 | 0.8037 | 0.8003 |
F(stat) | 173.81 | 164.03 | 177.09 | 232.39 |
Prob > F | 0.0 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | −164.44 * (0.000) | −153.82 * (0.000) | −161.88 * (0.000) | −145.42 * (0.000) |
Social Inclusion | 47.70 * (0.000) | 47.77 * (0.000) | 47.65 * (0.000) | 47.49 * (0.000) |
innovation | 4.80 * (0.008) | 4.77 ** (0.013) | 4.51 * (0.000) | 4.62 * (0.001) |
Government Effectiveness | 4.43 *** (0.099) | |||
Foreign Direct Investment | 3.89 ** (0.048) | 3.57 *** (0.082) | 3.67 *** (0.062) | 3.45 *** (0.064) |
Agriculture Employment | 1.85 (0.40) | |||
Control of corruption | 3.29 *** (0.083) | 3.67 (0.213) | ||
R. squared | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.81 | |
F-stat | 169.60 | 151.72 | 168.05 | 222.75 |
Variable | [1] | [2] | [3] | [4] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Constant | 2.0853 * (0.000) | 2.1309 * (0.000) | 0.713744 * (0.002) | 1.0606 * (0.000) |
Food security (−1) | 0.27062 * (0.002) | 0.25584 * (0.008) | 0.25467 * (0.008) | 0.26773 * (0.004) |
Social Inclusion | 0.46977 * (0.000) | 0.56962 * (0.000) | 0.41540 * (0.000) | 0.67488 * (0.000) |
Innovation | 0.13577 * (0.000) | 0.14266 * (0.000) | 0.15481 * (0.000) | 0.15092 * (0.000) |
Government Effectiveness | 0.12824 * (0.003) | 0.16922 * (0.000) | 0.18239 * (0.000) | |
Foreign Direct Investment | 0.03370 * (0.000) | |||
Agriculture Employment | 0.288257 * (0.000) | 0.28078 * (0.000) | ||
Control of corruption | 0.25012 * (0.000) | |||
Group/Observation | 15/159 | 15/159 | 15/151 | 15/151 |
Wald chi2 | 299.74 * (0.000) | 313.21 * (0.000) | 386.49 * (0.000) | 383.30 * (0.000) |
AR (1) | −3.97 * (0.000) | −3.89 * (0.000) | −3.76 * (0.000) | −3.98 * (0.000) |
AR (2) | 1.63 (0.104) | 1.71 (0.880) | 1.44 (0.151) | 1.96 (0.52) |
Sargan Test | 2.18 (0.336) | 4.95 (0.176) | 4.14 (4.14) | 1.94 (0.586) |
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Khalid Anser, M.; Iqbal Godil, D.; Aderounmu, B.; Onabote, A.; Osabohien, R.; Ashraf, J.; Yao-Ping Peng, M. Social Inclusion, Innovation and Food Security in West Africa. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2619. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052619
Khalid Anser M, Iqbal Godil D, Aderounmu B, Onabote A, Osabohien R, Ashraf J, Yao-Ping Peng M. Social Inclusion, Innovation and Food Security in West Africa. Sustainability. 2021; 13(5):2619. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052619
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhalid Anser, Muhammad, Danish Iqbal Godil, Busayo Aderounmu, Ademola Onabote, Romanus Osabohien, Junaid Ashraf, and Michael Yao-Ping Peng. 2021. "Social Inclusion, Innovation and Food Security in West Africa" Sustainability 13, no. 5: 2619. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052619
APA StyleKhalid Anser, M., Iqbal Godil, D., Aderounmu, B., Onabote, A., Osabohien, R., Ashraf, J., & Yao-Ping Peng, M. (2021). Social Inclusion, Innovation and Food Security in West Africa. Sustainability, 13(5), 2619. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052619