Exploring Community Perceptions of Climate Change Issues in Peninsular Malaysia

Abstract

The urbanization process in Peninsular Malaysia has resulted in an increase in temperature. Large cities such as Kuala Lumpur, Johor Bharu, and George Town are experiencing rapid urbanization processes, resulting in unpredictable changes in temperature and weather, which consequently impact community livelihoods. Many believe that the recent flooding in urban residential areas in Peninsular Malaysia has been worsened by climate change. Hence, this paper explores and discusses recent community perceptions of the climate change issue in Peninsular Malaysia. A group of 350 community members from different states in Peninsular Malaysia gave their views and opinions related to climate change via an online quantitative survey questionnaire. Their perception of the urbanization process and its impact on the increase in temperature was descriptively analyzed using the frequency analysis technique and mean score, while their suggestions in verbatim form on reducing the effects of climate change were analyzed thematically. The respondents perceived the climate change issue as attributable to the factors of urbanization, namely the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles. Respondents provided suggestions for reducing the effects of climate change, ranging from government policies to community actions.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, urban areas in Malaysia have become increasingly prominent as human habitats compared to in the early 19th Century, when Malaysia was still covered with equatorial rainforests rich in biodiversity and minerals, interspersed by villages, especially in places leading to the estuaries of the major river basins [1,2]. However, human habitats began to change, slowly at first, before expanding widely in the last four decades, due the increase in population in the socioeconomic strata, in turn due to the mobilization of various types of capital to carry out and develop a combination of activities to meet the basic needs and development of the population [3]. As a result, settlements, dwellings, and the surrounding areas began to change, from a natural state to more of a built landscape, where the basic components of natural ecology began to deteriorate due to these factors. Thus, the problem of increased widespread exploitation and unsystematic management of these natural resources is impacting the environment through, for example, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, climate change, global warming, and increased flood disasters [3,4]. These changes in the environment inevitably impact the livelihood of the community socially and economically. Hence, it is interesting to investigate community perceptions of the factors contributing to the issues of climate change, as well as their suggestions to reduce or address these issues.

Physical development activities are carried out in the name of meeting the needs and wants of the community. Therefore, vegetation areas are cleared to give space for development activities, causing a decreasing rate of carbon dioxide being absorbed by the scarce trees and plants [3,5,6]. Climate change has almost become a mainstream issue, and this has indicated that the country is in crisis [7,8]. The public debate on climate change in Malaysia is largely ignored. Temperatures and sea levels are rising, but most Malaysians do not associate such changes with climate change, although their socioeconomic activities are affected from time to time, as the consequence of climate change [9,10]. Thus, it is appropriate to explore and discuss the community perceptions of the issue of climate change.

The objectives of this study were to investigate the community perceptions of the factors contributing to climate change and their suggestions to reduce the effects of climate change. The questions of what contributing factors to climate change were perceived by the community to be the most influential, and what suggestions the community perceived to be effective to reduce the effects of climate change were the focus of this study. These questions have become particularly important for the urban and suburban communities in recent years, as climate change is no longer merely affecting the coastal community. Many devastating effects of climate change such as floods, torrential rain, heat waves, water shortages, and rare hail storms have been experienced by the urban and suburban communities in recent years. Flash floods and torrential downpours in December 2021 hit the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia, affecting eight states. Malaysia’s worst flooding in years left at least 54 people dead, two missing, and 30,000 displaced [5,11]. Therefore, the community perceptions of the contributing factors and their suggestions to reduce the effects of climate change were particularly important for the future of community driven planning and preparation to face the calamity.

1.1. Review of the Literature

Climate change is one of the consequences of global warming. Global warming may be understood as the rise of the average temperature of the Earth’s climate system measured over a century scale [2]. Climate change results in unpredictable weather; the rise of sea level, including warmer oceans and damaged corals; changing rain and snow patterns; less snow and ice; thawing permafrost; stronger storms; higher temperatures and more heat waves; more droughts and wildfires; changes in animal migration and life cycles; changes in plant life cycles; and disruption to human life and activities [12]. The effects of climate change are borderless, and Malaysia is no exception. Scientists in many countries, in a number of studies, have agreed that climate change and global warming are partly caused by the human population and activities, such as greenhouse gas emissions and the process of urbanization [3,5,6,13]. Studies have also captured community perceptions and feedback on the issue of climate change and global warming around the world, including in Malaysia [14,15,16,17,18].

1.1.1. The Issue of Climate Change

According to the World Meteorological Organization [3], global temperature changes at this point have exceeded 1.2 degrees Celsius compared to pre-industrial times, in the 1850s. Increased industrial activities, transportation, open burning, deforestation, and agriculture are the major factors in the increasing greenhouse gas emissions every year. Such activities have impacted Earth temperatures and caused climate change and global warming, due to the increasing greenhouse effect [19].

As gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane, and nitrous oxide absorb radiation from the sun and re-emit that radiation, the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere will increase. These gases also absorb heat energy released from the Earth’s atmospheric system. This will collectively increase the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere. Researchers explained that the temperature in Malaysia experienced a significant increase in the average annual temperature, which ranged from 0.99 to 3.44 °C in 100 years, and where the capital, Kuala Lumpur, recorded the highest increase compared to other states [20]. Researchers also reported that a significant trend of urban temperature change in Peninsular Malaysia, at the Kuala Lumpur city station, showed the most significant trend change (5.63 °C/100 years) compared to the stations of other cities in Peninsular Malaysia [21]. In addition, there are several weather indicators that are considered to have changed significantly; among them are the frequency of storms exceeding 30 mm/h, increased daily rainfall intensity, and also prolonged drought conditions [12]. Referring to the studies of the past 10–20 years, the average temperature change that occurred was between 2 and 5 °C in 100 years [22,23].

Malaysia is rapidly experiencing a process of urbanization, for the purpose of physical development, causing the loss of vegetation areas, as this influences the expansion of urban areas. This process has changed the shape of settlement patterns in the suburbs [1]. Urbanization occurs because of annual population growth and migration from rural areas to urban areas, due to the influence of economic and social changes in the areas involved [3]. Although the factors contributing to climate change may vary and a combination of different factors may be involved (from natural and anthropogenic sources), it is interesting to examine the perceptions of community members on whether or not in their view such changes, i.e., the factors of urbanization such as manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles, contribute to the issue of climate change.

The United-States-led Climate Ambition Summit on 12 December 2020 marked the fifth anniversary of the signing of the Paris Agreement in 2015. The summit discussed how countries can contribute to more effective climate aspirations. The United States invited 40 countries to participate in the summit. The invitation was based on a demonstration of strong climate leadership by a country, vulnerability to climate effects, and the level of competence in finding innovative ways to achieve a net-zero economy. However, Malaysia was not invited, although Malaysia’s neighboring countries such as Vietnam, Singapore, and China were invited. Former Malaysian finance minister, Lim Guan Eng, mentioned that all countries are affected by climate change, only to a different degree [24]. He noted that Malaysia was excluded because Malaysia was not seen as a strategic environmental partner in climate change action, as it is a preferred plastic waste dump country by the United States. Among Malaysia’s current climate policies that can ensure the implementation of a sustainable urbanization process are:

• Establishing the Malaysian Climate Change Action Council (MyCAC) in April 2021 as a key platform for implementing climate change policy at the state and federal levels [25];
• Establishing a “Green New Deal” for Malaysia to be a leader in the green economy and sustainable development [26];
• Controlling greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through carbon trading [27];
• Implementing the Low Carbon Mobility Development Plan 2021–2030 [28];
• Reducing carbon emissions in low carbon cities by implementing the Low Carbon City Master Plan [29].

It is hoped that the efforts and policies established by the Malaysian government can reduce the rate of pollution and ensure the development of sustainable urbanization. Although the efforts made have centered on establishing these guidelines, it is an effort that should be commended.

1.1.2. Community Perceptions

Due to the loss of many forests and vegetation areas that serve as carbon dioxide filters, Kuala Lumpur is getting hotter, and Malaysia is also predicted to be a very hot country in the next 10 years [30]. There is no denying that human factors such as environmentally unfriendly and unsustainable economic activities such as urbanization contribute to climate change and global warming. Forests and vegetation areas are the green lungs of the world and are carbon catchment areas that serve as the world’s sink, as well as the main balancer of the world’s climate conditions. The loss of forests and vegetation areas in any part of the Earth will cause the loss of elements that serve as a balance of the Earth’s climatic conditions. Hence, all countries, including Malaysia, will be subjected to these impacts. Regardless of whether deforestation for development activities such as urbanization occurs in Malaysia or in other countries, all countries will be affected by climate change, due to the nature of biotic and abiotic elements of the Earth’s environment that integrate without borders and interact in a reciprocal manner.

A study on a coastal community in Malaysia found that some community members, i.e., housewives and retirees, as well as students, were highly aware of the changes relating to the sea, temperatures, and the coast [14]. However, fishermen were less aware of the changes. This finding was supported by other researchers, who found that islanders in Malaysia were highly aware of the rising temperature, as they were concerned it would restrict their abilities to diversify their income-generating activities [15]. A study conducted by other researchers on coastal communities in Malaysia also found a high level of awareness among the community members, as they were worried about the impact on their properties and income generation [16]:

…majority of respondents were aware of climate change issues and challenges. High levels of concern about climate change were expressed with the majority were worried and uncertain about the climate change impact and hoped for government measures. Almost half of respondents cited significant damage to their properties and reduction in income generation.

Meanwhile, the awareness and perception among corporate managers in Malaysia illustrate a wide general awareness and a serious concern about the change of climate, as it will affect their companies’ operations and profit. Most of them thought that the government should take the responsibility, while a few others admitted that it should be the responsibility of the corporate sectors as well [17].

Another recent study also found high levels of awareness among the elderly, experienced, educated, healthy, and improved socioeconomic status community members of Pahang coast (one of the states in Peninsular Malaysia), specifically on the impact of global warming and climate change, such as human and environmental casualties, including losses of livestock resources, residential properties, agriculture, and economic activities. Additionally, the authors suggested [18]:

…that education and awareness-raising, including capacity building, play essential roles in the further understanding and decision making of coastal hazards and adaptation strategies. Moreover, the principal component analysis model identifies that structural and non-structural measures and community-based adaptation measures are essential to protect the coast.

However, Ramakreshnan et al. [5] found that studies on the impact of climate change, in particular the urban heat island (UHI), on environment and human health in urban areas such as Kuala Lumpur were scarce.

From the literature reviewed, it is clear that community perception in Malaysia, particularly the level of awareness of climate change caused by global warming and related issues, was very high. Although the community perception of the responsibility to address the issue of climate change was varied, they agreed on the three most important parties that should be involved in taking the responsibility to address the issue, namely the government, the corporate sector, and the community.

On another note, the previous literature mostly studied the perceptions of coastal communities of the issue of climate change and the effects the activities of the communities, including their economic activities in Malaysia. Only one study was found that studied the perception of corporate sectors on the issue of climate change. Hence, the aim of this study was to enrich the existing knowledge with an exploration of the perceptions of other communities, particularly communities from urban and suburban areas in Malaysia of the issue of climate change. Additionally, previous studies focused more on the community awareness of the issue of climate change, leaving a gap regarding community perceptions of the factors contributing to climate change (such as the factors of urbanization) and community suggestions to reduce the effects of climate change, which are the focus of this study.

2. Materials and Methods

A cross-sectional research design was employed in this study. The study was set to answer two main questions, namely what is the level of community perception of the urbanization factors contributing to the issues of climate change in Peninsular Malaysia? Together with, what are the community suggestions for reducing or addressing the issues of climate change in Peninsular Malaysia? We hypothesized that the community would have a moderate to high level of perception. Hence, a quantitative online survey questionnaire was utilized to collect responses from respondents on their perceptions pertaining to the issue of climate change in Malaysia; i.e., their perceptions of factors that influence climate change, i.e., the urbanization process, and their views and suggestions for reducing the effects of climate change at the individual, community, national, and international levels.

Through a convenience sampling technique (a non-probability sampling method), 350 community members from different states in Peninsular Malaysia voluntarily participated in this study and answered the quantitative online survey questionnaire, administered via Google Forms and Microsoft Forms links disseminated to the respondents through email and WhatsApp, from March 2021 to May 2022. Additionally, a consent form was disseminated to participants using a uniform resource locators (URL) link different from the URL link of the online quantitative questionnaire survey. The sample size of 350 respondents was determined using the G*Power 3.1.9.7 application, with a statistical power of 0.95 and a small size effect of f = 0.20 for demographic characteristics at a significance level of p < 0.05, which required a minimum sample of 272 respondents. Face-to-face administration of the quantitative survey questionnaire could not be conducted, due to the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic movement control order, enforced at times by the government of Malaysia throughout the years 2020 to 2021. Hence, due to the use of a convenience sampling technique in this study, no generalization of research findings is made in this paper, due to the potential bias and high sampling error associated with the method. Nonetheless, this sampling technique was chosen for this study due to the exploratory nature of the study. Of the total number of respondents, 169 (48.3%) were male, 180 (51.4%) were female, and 1 (0.3%) did not state their gender. Further, 10 (2.9%) were below 20 years old, 223 (63.7%) were 20–40 years old, 115 (32.9%) were 41 years old or above, and 2 (0.5%) did not state their age. For the ethnic category, 268 (76.6%) were Malay, 45 (12.9%) were Chinese, 17 (4.9%) were Indian, 19 (5.3%) were from other ethnicities, and 1 (0.3%) did not state their ethnicity.

The quantitative online survey questionnaire contained three main sections, namely Section A for demographic background of the respondents, such as gender, age, race, religion, and state of residence; and Section B, which consists of items measuring the perceptions of the respondents on factors influencing climate change, i.e., the factors of urbanization, namely the manufacturing industry and population density, as well as private motor vehicles. A Likert scale of 1 to 5 was used with the items (where 1 is strongly disagree; 2 is disagree, 3 is not sure; 4 is agree; and 5 is strongly agree). During the frequency analysis and for the purpose of reporting, the 5 categories of the Likert scale were collapsed into 3 categories, i.e., disagree and not sure as well as agree, but the mean score calculation and analysis for the factors of urbanization were based on the 5 Likert scales. Section C is an open-ended question on respondents’ opinions and suggestions for reducing the effects of climate change at the individual, community, national, and international levels. The three sections are based on the objectives of this study. The data were analyzed descriptively, i.e., frequency analysis and mean score, for the data obtained from Sections A and B in the quantitative online survey questionnaire.

Additionally, suggestions by respondents in verbatim form for reducing the effects of climate change from the open-ended questions in Section C of the quantitative online survey questionnaire were analyzed thematically following the influential factors of urbanization on climate change, namely the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles; hence, supporting and further explaining the data obtained in Section B of the quantitative online survey questionnaire. Of the respondents, 286 gave their suggestions (

Table 1. Suggestions by respondents for reducing the effects of climate change.

Theme	Respondent (R x)	Suggestions
Manufacturing industry	R 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 47, 66, 70, 87, 91, 110, 129, 130, 136, 142, 146, 151, 155, 209, 259 and 276	Reduce carbon foot print, and the government to impose a carbon tax and polluters pay policy.
	R 2, 11, 13, 20, 21, 58, 60, 61, 63, 66, 72, 84, 113, 121, 123, 126, 141, 153, 156, 176, 183, 196, 203, 206, 211, 222, 253 and 266	The application of urban green spaces in urban planning, including in industrial areas.
	R 5, 7, 14, 17–19, 55, 81, 116, 174 and 241	Less confidence in the environmental agreements and declarations signed at the international level, such as the Paris Agreement in 2015 under the United Nations (UN) framework.
Population density	R 10, 12, 15, 21, 22, 41, 59, 62, 65, 67, 71, 72, 74, 77, 79, 80, 90, 94, 99, 113, 116, 120–122, 124, 143, 155, 156, 169, 173, 179–182, 185, 189, 198, 204, 218, 220, 225, 247, 256, 257, 267, 270, 273 and 279	The government to practice and enforce sustainable urbanization strategies (including on population density per area) because the unsustainable urbanization process currently occurring in Malaysia cause flash floods in the cities, landslides, and air pollutants, especially the episodes of haze pollution.
	R 16, 19, 20, 21, 23, 51, 68, 73, 79, 103, 116, 132, 133, 137, 145, 147, 166, 187, 209, 212, 228, 235, 239, 240, 248, 250, 260, 261, 263, 265 and 271, 272	The government to establish measures for providing awareness to the people of Malaysia, to address the problem of climate change.
	R 3, 7, 11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 30, 31, 34, 42, 75, 82, 84, 89, 113, 114, 121, 125, 127, 134, 167, 176, 183, 188, 191, 200, 201, 206, 214, 254, 262, 275 and 277	The increase in forest reserves and green recreation areas especially in the urban areas.
	R 11, 13, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26–29, 35, 41, 44, 48–50, 55, 64, 65, 70, 71, 81, 83, 86, 88–89, 92, 95, 101–103, 107, 114, 115, 122, 123, 125, 126, 131, 138, 139, 141, 149, 150, 152, 157–165, 170, 171, 177, 179, 190, 192, 194, 195, 197, 203, 210, 213, 216, 217, 219, 221–225, 229–234, 237, 238, 240–246, 249, 252, 256, 264, 267, 269, 274, 278, 282, 283 and 285	More campaigns to cultivate tree planting activities and to encourage the habit of reduce, reuse, recycling, and turning waste materials at home into compost.
	R 9, 11, 13, 15, 19–21, 25, 32, 37, 45, 57, 96, 103, 119, 148, 175, 178, 179 and 284	Doubling the efforts in education, starting from the childhood level on the importance of green Earth as the habitat of the current and future generations.
	R 20, 53, 54, 56, 93, 97, 104, 123, 153, 247, 266, 268 and 284	The establishment of community fruit and vegetable orchards and gardens, especially in the urban areas.
	R 9, 11, 17, 18, 19, 70, 76, 112, 144 and 269	Reducing the use of fossil fuels and opting for the use of renewable/alternative energy.
	R 8, 19, 20, 33, 66, 69, 85, 87, 100, 102, 121, 136, 154, 193, 211, 227, 265, 267 and 280	Tightening the law to prevent illegal forest exploration.
Private motor vehicles	R 17, 19, 20, 43, 78, 93, 96, 106, 107, 109, 117, 118, 179, 241, 281 and 286	An increase in the efficiency level of vehicles, including in the public transport system, such as system efficiency, travel distance, and vehicle efficiency by reducing the rate of vehicle fuel consumption per kilometer with the help of technology.
	R 7, 20, 21, 38, 41, 65, 95, 105–107, 109, 117, 118, 140, 168, 174, 179 and 241	Improving existing private and public vehicles by manufacturers, research institutions, and the government with the help of better technology.
	R 16, 17, 18, 36, 39, 40, 46, 52, 57, 80, 92, 127, 128, 166, 172, 184, 186, 192, 200, 202, 205, 207, 208, 210, 215, 226, 229, 236, 237, 251 and 255	Increase public awareness and incentives in the use of public transport and more energy efficient vehicles, which reduce fuel consumption.
	R 9, 10, 18, 20, 98 111, 135, 174, 198, 199, 202, 226, 228, 258 and 279	The government to expand public transportation services, such as railway services to states such as Kelantan and other states, implement restricted zoning policy for motorists, and encourage car-pooling.

).

3. Results

The findings of this study illustrate that respondents perceived the climate change issue as attributed to the factors of urbanization, namely the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles.

3.1. Manufacturing Industry

The majority of respondents (208 or 59.4%) agreed that their settlement areas are dense with industrial factories, while only 101 (28.9%) disagreed, and 41 (11.7%) reported not sure. Nevertheless, 283 (80.9%) respondents agreed that the manufacturing industry in their area leads to air pollution or haze, 31 (8.9%) disagreed, and 36 (10.2%) were not sure. In total, 202 (57.7%) respondents agreed with the statement “The manufacturing industry in your area does not carry out its proper responsibility towards the environment”, while 119 (34.0%) respondents were unsure, and 29 (8.3%) disagreed. For “The development of industrial sectors such as factories is leading to climate change”, the majority of the 286 (81.7%) respondents agreed, 22 (6.3%) disagreed, 40 (11.4%) were not sure, and 2 (0.6%) did not state their answers. The majority of the respondents (312 or 89.1%) agreed that the surface of the city receives and stores a lot of heat, 9 (2.6%) disagreed, 28 (8.0%) were not sure, and 1 (0.3%) did not answer. Furthermore, 258 (73.7%) respondents agreed that concrete and paved surfaces cause water runoff, 82 (23.4%) were not sure, another 8 (2.3%) disagreed, and 2 (0.6%) did not state their answers (Figure 1).

As for the conditions surrounding their houses and residential areas, 87 (24.9%) respondents were of the opinion that their residential housing areas are not dense with industrial factories. However, 190 (54.3%) of them reported that their residential housing areas are dense with industrial factories, and 73 (20.8%) respondents were not sure. The majority of the respondents (285 or 81.4%) reported that they were not comfortable living in a residential area close to manufacturing industrial areas, 51 (14.6%) were unsure, and 14 (4.0%) reported that they are comfortable living in residential areas close to the manufacturing industrial areas. The manufacturing industry in their residential areas disrupts their daily life was reported by 274 (78.3%) respondents. However, 30 (8.6%) of them disagreed, 45 (12.8%) respondents were not sure, and 1 (0.3%) did not answer (Figure 1).

The mean scores illustrate a moderate to strong perception of the respondents of the manufacturing industry as an urbanization factor contributing to climate change (

Table 2. Community perceptions of the factor of the manufacturing industry.

Number	Item	Mean Score *	Interpretation
1	Settlement areas are dense with industrial factories.	2.96	Moderate
2	The manufacturing industry leads to air pollution or haze.	3.63	Moderate
3	The manufacturing industry does not carry out its proper responsibility towards the environment.	3.41	Moderate
4	The development of industrial sectors such as factories is leading to climate change.	3.92	Strong
5	The surfaces of the cities receive and store a lot of heat.	4.06	Strong
6	Concrete and paved surfaces cause water runoff.	3.89	Strong
7	Residential housing areas are dense with industrial factories.	3.24	Moderate
8	Residents are not comfortable living in residential areas that are close to the manufacturing industrial areas.	4.07	Strong
9	The manufacturing industry in the residential areas disrupts residents’ daily lives.	3.68	Strong

* Mean scores of the respondents are categorized as follows: weak perception: 1.00–2.33; moderate perception: 2.34–3.66; strong perception: 3.67–5.00.

). The respondents have strong perceptions that the development of the manufacturing industry leads to climate change, causes trapped heat and water runoff, causes discomfort, and disrupts their quality of life generally. However, they have moderate perceptions of the density of industrial factories in their settlement, as well as in their residential housing areas. They also have a moderate perception that the manufacturing industry causes air pollution, and does not fulfil its responsibility towards the environment.

One of the suggestions by the respondents was for the government to impose a carbon tax. They also proposed the application of urban green spaces in urban planning. There were also some respondents who commented that they were less confident in the many environmental agreements and declarations, such as the Paris Agreement in 2015 under the United Nations (UN) framework, signed at the international level.

3.2. Population Density

The respondents were from different states in Peninsular Malaysia, i.e., 29 (8.3%) of the respondents were from Johor state, 21 (6.0%) from Kuala Lumpur, 21 (6.0%) from Negeri Sembilan, 20 (5.7%) from Pahang, 48 (13.7%) from Kelantan, 20 (5.7%) from Perak, 126 (36.0%) from Selangor, 10 (2.9%) from Pulau Pinang (Penang), 11 (3.1%) from Terengganu, 4 (1.1%) from Perlis, 16 (4.6%) from Kedah, 22 (6.3%) from Melaka (Malacca), and 2 (0.6%) from Putrajaya (Figure 2). Of the 350 respondents, 137 (39.1%) were from suburban areas, 211 (60.3%) from urban areas, and 2 (0.6%) did not state this in their response.

Of the respondents, 145 (41.4%) reported that their surrounding area is densely populated, 58 (16.6%) said they are not from a densely populated surrounding area, 52 (14.9%) reported that their surrounding area is probably densely populated, 91 (26.0%) said their surrounding area is mildly populated, and 4 (1.1%) said they did not know (Figure 3).

As for their residential areas, 256 (73.1%) stated that their residential area is densely populated, 51 (14.6%) respondents were not sure, and 43 (12.3%) reported that their residential area is not densely populated. According to 266 (76.0%) of the respondents, vegetation in their residential area is cleared for development purposes, 40 (11.4%) of them were not sure, 43 (12.3%) were not of the opinion that vegetation in their residential area is cleared for development purposes, and 1 (0.3%) did not state any response. Many respondents reported that their houses have space for gardening or planting trees; i.e., 81 (23.1%) respondents. However, 43 (12.3%) of them were not sure, and the majority of respondents (225 or 64.3%) reported no space for gardening or planting trees in the area around their houses, and 1 (0.3%) did not respond. The respondents (306 or 87.4%) reported that the process of urbanization caused trees to be cut down and the clearing of land. Only 14 (4.0%) respondents did not share the same opinion, 28 (8.0%) were not sure, and 2 (0.6%) did not respond. Many respondents agreed that a closed building causes heat to be trapped; i.e., 312 (89.1%) of the respondents, while only 9 (2.6%) disagreed, 27 (7.7%) were not sure, and 2 (0.6%) did not state their response (Figure 4).

The mean scores mostly illustrate a strong perception of the respondents of population density as a factor contributing to climate change (

Table 3. Community perceptions of the factor of population density.

Number	Item	Mean Score *	Interpretation
1	Surrounding areas are densely populated.	3.78	Strong
2	Residential areas are densely populated.	3.88	Strong
3	Vegetation in the residential areas is cleared for development purposes.	3.8	Strong
4	Residents’ houses do not have space for gardening or planting trees.	3.16	Moderate
5	The process of urbanization caused trees to be cut down and the clearing of land.	4.12	Strong
6	A closed building causes heat to be trapped.	4.13	Strong

* Mean scores of the respondents are categorized as follows: weak perception: 1.00–2.33; moderate perception: 2.34–3.66; strong perception: 3.67–5.00.

). Respondents have a strong perception that their surrounding areas and residential areas are densely populated, that vegetation in their residential areas are being cleared for development purposes, that the process of urbanization causes the clearance of land from vegetation, and that a closed building traps more heat, hence contributing to global warming and, consequently, climate change. However, they have a moderate perception of lack of space for planting in their residential and housing areas.

To further elucidate the respondents’ perception of the process of urbanization pertaining to population density that leads to climate change, several questions were posed to the respondents on whether they would live in urban or rural areas if given a choice; on the efficiency of government efforts for sustainable urbanization development, including population distribution; and on their suggestions to reduce the effect of climate change, given the factor of population density, and as the more dense the population in an area, the more human activities taking place, and the more impact on the natural environment, including climate change. The findings illustrate that a total of 244 (69.7%) respondents were more willing to live in rural areas compared to urban areas, only 97 (27.7%) respondents chose to live in urban areas, and another 9 (2.6%) did not state their preference.

Overall, although there were a handful of respondents who wished to settle in urban areas for the good accessibility to many modern facilities and job opportunities, the unsustainable urbanization process has had various negative side effects on the well-being of the population. Therefore, the study found that the majority of respondents were more willing to live in rural areas, due to the importance of mental and physical health. Many respondents commented on the unsustainable urbanization process currently occurring in Malaysia. They pointed to indicators such as flash floods in the cities, landslides, and air pollutants, especially the episodes of haze pollution. Ramakreshnan et al. [32] stated that previous studies found both physical and mental health impacts of haze pollution on communities in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Hence, the respondents suggested the government practice and enforce sustainable urbanization strategies.

Another suggestion from a few of the respondents was for the government to establish measures for providing awareness to the people of Malaysia to address the problem of climate change. However, most respondents proposed an increase in forest reserves and green recreation areas, especially in urban areas. They also suggested more campaigns to cultivate tree planting activities and to encourage the habit of turning waste materials into compost at home. Other respondents also supported the campaign’s idea and suggested doubling the efforts in education, starting from the childhood level, on the importance of a green Earth as the habitat of the current and future generations. Additionally, other respondents suggested the establishment of community fruit and vegetable orchards and gardens, especially in the urban areas. In the case of Putrajaya, previous studies found that the concept of a garden city has proven effective in mitigating the effects of the urban heat island (UHI) of the city. Of the total Putrajaya land area, about 37% is reserved for vegetation [5,33]. Furthermore, there are also respondents who suggested reducing the use of fossil fuels and tightening the law to prevent illegal forest exploration.

3.3. Private Motor Vehicles

As for the responses in terms of the use of motor vehicles, 317 (90.6%) agreed that the use of motor vehicles in their area is at a high rate, 18 (5.1%) were unsure, and 15 (4.3%) disagreed. In addition, 294 (84.0%) respondents reported that they used private vehicles every day, 15 (4.3%) were not sure, 40 (11.4%) did not use private vehicles every day, and 1 (0.3%) did not respond. However, not many respondents used public transportation on a daily basis, i.e., only 37 (10.6%) reported that they use public transport every day, 35 (10.0%) were not sure, the majority of the respondents (276 or 78.8%) reported that they did not use public transport every day, and 2 (0.6%) did not respond. This is due to the respondents’ perception that the government did not provide adequate and efficient public transportation in their area; i.e., 210 (60.0%) respondents. Only 48 (13.7%) respondents stated that the public transportation in their area was adequate and efficient, another 91 (26.0%) were not sure, and 1 (0.3%) did not respond. Respondents were also of the opinion that the increase in vehicles causes the increase in greenhouse gases (308 or 88.0% of respondents). Only 10 (2.9%) of them did not share this opinion, and 32 (9.1%) were not sure (Figure 5).

The mean scores illustrate the moderate perception of the respondents for private motor vehicles as a factor contributing to climate change (

Table 4. Community perceptions of the factor of private motor vehicles.

Number	Item	Mean Score *	Interpretation
1	The use of motor vehicles is at a high rate.	4.03	Strong
2	Respondents used private vehicles every day.	3.9	Strong
3	Respondents used public transportation on a daily basis.	2.15	Weak
4	Public transportation is adequate and efficient.	3.23	Moderate
5	The increase in vehicles causes the increase in greenhouse gases.	4.1	Strong

* Mean scores of the respondents are categorized as follows: weak perception: 1.00–2.33; moderate perception: 2.34–3.66; strong perception: 3.67–5.00.

). Respondents strongly perceived that the use of motor vehicles in Malaysia is at a high rate, and that the increase in the use of motor vehicles will increase greenhouse gas emissions. However, they themselves were using private motor vehicles more than public transport, although they agreed that motor vehicles in their areas are common. They moderately claimed that public transport was not adequate or efficient.

Some of the respondents suggested an increase in the efficiency level of vehicles. Among the factors that need to be examined to improve energy efficiency in the public transport system are system efficiency, travel distance, and vehicle efficiency. According to the respondents, among the ways to improve vehicle efficiency is to reduce the rate of vehicle fuel consumption per kilometer, and this can be carried out with the help of technology. Links between the number of vehicles on the road and the effects of the urban heat island (UHI) were found by previous studies. The rise of temperature in urban areas such as Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya resulted in the urban residents experiencing unpleasant climatic or weather conditions. The intensity of the UHI of the cities was higher during a work-day, due to heavy used of vehicles as compared to a nonworking day due to less traffic [5,13]. Additionally, the respondents commented that apart from creating new car designs and renewing the fuel concept, improvements to existing vehicles should be considered. This measure is not only focused on private vehicles, but can also be applied to improve the efficiency of public vehicles. Although this task is more focused on vehicle manufacturers and research institutions, the respondents were of the opinion that the government can help in providing better technology and increasing public awareness of cultivating the use of more energy efficient vehicles, while reducing fuel consumption.

There were also respondents who think that the government should expand railway services to states such as Kelantan, to allow its residents to enjoy the same services as those in other states. Hence, the pollution that contributes to climate change can also be reduced, and people can also move more comfortably.

3.4. Demographic Characteristics and the Factors of Urbanization

Table 5. Mean score for manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles.

Demographic Characteristics	Manufacturing Industry		Population Density		Private Motor Vehicles
	M * ± SD	Interpretation	M * ± SD	Interpretation	M * ± SD	Interpretation
Gender
Male	2.33 ± 0.65	Weak	2.62 ± 0.66	Moderate	2.46 ± 0.72	Moderate
Female	2.31 ± 0.60	Weak	2.55 ± 0.71	Moderate	2.58 ± 0.78	Moderate
Age
<20 years old	2.54 ± 0.52	Moderate	3.00 ± 0.70	Moderate	3.03 ± 0.33	Moderate
20–40 years old	2.34 ± 0.63	Moderate	2.56 ± 0.69	Moderate	2.58 ± 0.74	Moderate
>41 years old	2.25 ± 0.62	Weak	2.60 ± 0.67	Moderate	2.35 ± 0.76	Moderate
Ethnicity
Malay	2.27 ± 0.63	Weak	2.53 ± 0.69	Moderate	2.48 ± 0.73	Moderate
Chinese	2.51 ± 0.58	Moderate	2.69 ± 0.53	Moderate	2.73 ± 0.79	Moderate
Indian	2.56 ± 0.55	Moderate	3.17 ± 0.65	Moderate	3.20 ± 0.50	Moderate
Others	2.59 ± 0.53	Moderate	2.93 ± 0.60	Moderate	2.61 ± 0.82	Moderate
State
Johor	2.25 ± 0.62	Moderate	2.62 ± 0.82	Moderate	2.56 ± 0.73	Moderate
Kedah	2.39 ± 0.47	Moderate	2.74 ± 0.69	Moderate	2.71 ± 0.85	Moderate
Kelantan	2.32 ± 0.63	Weak	2.51 ± 0.65	Moderate	2.61 ± 0.76	Moderate
Kuala Lumpur	2.53 ± 0.83	Moderate	2.51 ± 0.52	Moderate	2.46 ± 0.56	Moderate
Melaka (Malacca)	2.48 ± 0.47	Moderate	2.67 ± 0.46	Moderate	2.63 ± 0.49	Moderate
Negeri Sembilan	2.37 ± 0.59	Moderate	2.27 ± 0.62	Weak	2.33 ± 0.95	Weak
Pahang	2.41 ± 0.57	Moderate	2.61 ± 0.76	Moderate	2.81 ± 0.63	Moderate
Perak	2.43 ± 0.56	Moderate	2.78 ± 0.64	Moderate	2.83 ± 0.77	Moderate
Perlis	2.42 ± 0.37	Moderate	2.83 ± 1.00	Moderate	2.60 ± 0.71	Moderate
Pulau Pinang (Penang)	2.14 ± 0.69	Weak	2.45 ± 0.77	Moderate	2.51 ± 0.77	Moderate
Putrajaya	2.06 ± 0.08	Weak	2.25 ± 0.12	Weak	2.00 ± 0.28	Weak
Selangor	2.22 ± 0.66	Weak	2.59 ± 0.70	Moderate	2.42 ± 0.76	Moderate
Terengganu	2.59 ± 0.47	Moderate	2.50 ± 0.89	Moderate	2.20 ± 0.96	Weak
Residing Area
Urban	2.33 ± 0.63	Weak	2.63 ± 0.66	Moderate	2.48 ± 0.75	Moderate
Suburban	2.30 ± 0.62	Weak	2.51 ± 0.72	Moderate	2.58 ± 0.75	Moderate

* Mean scores of the respondents are categorized as follows: weak perception: 1.00–2.33; moderate perception: 2.34–3.66; strong perception: 3.67–5.00.

illustrates the mean scores and interpretations of community perceptions of urbanization factors’ contribution to climate change issues by demographic characteristics. Overall, the level of their perceptions for manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles as contributors to climate change issues is moderate, with mean scores of 2.37, 2.63, and 2.57, respectively. However, the subgroup analysis demonstrates that gender (both male and female community members), those at the age 41 years old and above, Malay ethnic group, those from the states of Kelantan, Penang, Putrajaya, Selangor, and those resided in the urban and suburban areas, weakly perceived manufacturing industry as a contributor to climate change issues. On the other hand, those resided in the states of Negeri Sembilan and Putrajaya perceived population density as a weak contributor to climate change issues. As for the factor of private motor vehicles, those from the states of Negeri Sembilan, Putrajaya, and Terengganu weakly perceived it as a contributor to the issues of climate change.

Additionally, multiple linear regression was used to test if the demographic characteristics significantly predicted the perceptions of community members pertaining to the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles as contributors to the issues of climate change.

Table 6. Regression model for manufacturing industry.

Model Summary
Model	R	R2	Adjusted R2	Standard Error
1	0.192 a	0.037	0.02	5.57128
ANOVA a
Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	338.198	5	67.64	2.179	0.057 b
	Residual	8815.126	284	31.039
	Total	9153.324	289
Coefficients a
Model		Unstandardized B	Coefficients Std. Error	Standardized Coefficients Beta	t	Sig.
1	(Constant)	25.718	2.091		12.299	<0.001
	Gender	−0.086	0.661	−0.008	−0.13	0.896
	Age	−0.132	0.675	−0.029	−0.461	0.645
	Ethnicity	−0.725	0.272	−0.163	−2.669	0.008
	State	−0.081	0.082	−0.06	−0.989	0.324
	Residing Area	−0.125	0.69	−0.011	−0.18	0.857

^a Dependent Variable: Manufacturing Industry; ^b Predictors (Constant), Residing Area, Age, Gender, Ethnicity, State.

displays a fitted regression model for the manufacturing industry: Manufacturing industry = 25.718 − 0.086 (gender) − 0.312 (age) − 0.725 (ethnicity) − 0.081 (state) − 0.125 (residing area). The overall regression was statistically not significant (R² = 0.037, F(5, 284) = 2.179, p = 0.057).

On the other hand,

Table 7. Regression model for population density.

Model Summary
Model	R	R2	Adjusted R2	Standard Error
1	0.204 a	0.042	0.025	4.02936
ANOVA a
Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	200.398	5	40.08	2.469	0.033 b
	Residual	4627.176	285	16.236
	Total	4827.574	290
Coefficients a
Model		Unstandardized B	Coefficients Std. Error	Standardized Coefficients Beta	t	Sig.
1	(Constant)	18.752	1.491		12.573	<0.001
	Gender	−0.245	0.479	−0.03	−0.511	0.61
	Age	0.221	0.487	0.028	0.454	0.65
	Ethnicity	−0.603	0.189	−0.193	−3.197	0.002
	State	−0.015	0.059	−0.015	−0.255	0.799
	Residing Area	−0.411	0.498	−0.049	−0.826	0.41

^a Dependent Variable: Population Density; ^b Predictors (Constant), Residing Area, Age, Gender, Ethnicity, State.

illustrates a fitted regression model for population density: Population density = 18.752 − 0.245 (gender) + 0.221 (age) − 0.603 (ethnicity) − 0.015 (state) − 0.411 (residing area). The overall regression was statistically not significant (R² = 0.042, F(5, 285) = 2.179, p = 0.033).

For private motor vehicles,

Table 8. Regression model for private motor vehicles.

Model Summary
Model	R	R2	Adjusted R2	Standard Error
1	0.228 a	0.052	0.036	3.67601
ANOVA a
Model		Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
1	Regression	212.759	5	42.552	3.149	0.009 b
	Residual	3864.731	286	13.513
	Total	4077.49	291
Coefficients a
Model		Unstandardized B	Coefficients Std. Error	Standardized Coefficients Beta	t	Sig.
1	(Constant)	14.607	1.363		10.713	<0.001
	Gender	0.754	0.434	0.101	1.735	0.084
	Age	−1.167	0.444	−0.16	−2.629	0.009
	Ethnicity	−0.145	0.172	−0.05	−0.842	0.401
	State	−0.062	0.054	−0.07	−1.158	0.248
	Residing Area	0.477	0.453	0.062	1.053	0.293

^a Dependent Variable: Private Motor Vehicles; ^b Predictors (Constant), Residing Area, Age, Gender, Ethnicity, State.

displays a fitted regression model: Private motor vehicles = 14.607 + 0.754 (gender) − 1.167 (age) − 0.145 (ethnicity) − 0.062 (state) + 0.477 (residing area). Overall regression was statistically not significant (R² = 0.052, F(5, 286) = 3.149, p = 0.009).

Overall, it was found that the demographic characteristics did not significantly predict community perception of the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles as contributors to climate change issues.

4. Discussion

As a developing nation, Malaysia, particularly Peninsular Malaysia, has undergone a rapid development of the manufacturing industry, with quite a large area covered with factories. Industrial factory areas are usually separated from residential areas, but in most areas they are close to residential areas; hence, more than 50% of respondents agreed that their settlement areas are dense with industrial factories. The overall moderate (based on the result of subgroup analysis in Table 5) to strong (on certain items in Table 2) perceptions of the respondents of the manufacturing industry as an urbanization factor contributing to climate change are not unfounded. Researchers have long considered that greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide from manufacturing industries, such as pulp and paper, power plants, cement, iron, steel, and petrochemicals, are compelling factors, although the quantitative effects are still scientifically unproven [34,35]. The manufacturing factories in residential areas have various negative implications for the lives of urban residents. Furthermore, urbanization activities such as irresponsible manufacturing, due to excessive release of waste and toxic gases, landslides, as well as the construction of densely-spaced buildings, have had an impact on the comfort of respondents living in nearby areas. Such activities lead to increased rates of greenhouse gas emissions and increased temperatures [36].

A carbon tax is a payment imposed by a government on any company that burns fossil fuels such as coal, oil, petrol, and natural gas. When this carbon-rich fuel is burned, it will produce prolonged greenhouse gases, thus causing global warming, which consequently leads to climate change. Imposing a carbon tax will also encourage companies to switch to clean energy such as solar energy, wind power, and hydroelectric power sources. As a result, the industry will become more efficient in using energy and will find the most effective methods to reduce carbon emissions. The large amount of money earned from a carbon tax may be invested for the purposes of environmental sustainability, such as advancing low carbon technology. However, in terms of implementation, although Malaysia asserts a carbon tax agenda in its 12th Malaysian Plan (2021–2025), the challenges are pertinent, given that Malaysia is one of the top carbon dioxide emitters of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries [37]. Alternatively, Jia and Lin [38] suggested other effective policy instruments for climate change, namely a resource tax on fossil energy such as coal, by way of increasing the tax, resulting in a higher coal price. This was found to be effective in reducing carbon dioxide emissions [38,39]. However, they noted that renewable energy investment, such as in terms of subsidies and technologies, is an effective way forward in the long term. Carbon trading, which is the process of buying and selling permits and credits, allowing only permit holders to emit carbon dioxide, is another policy instrument found effective when coupled with a resource tax and carbon tax [39]. It is hopeful that with pressure from the community, this agenda may be able to be implemented sooner.

On the other hand, the respondents’ suggestions for urban green space looks more feasible, as it may be implemented by community-led initiatives, such as in the form of communal vegetable gardens and fruit tree orchards. The definition of “urban green space” is an open space in an urban area covered by vegetation that is directly and indirectly available to users and accessible to the public. A city’s green space not only covers parks, but is able to function as a recreational area and serves as a nature conservation area. In addition, this green space serves as a shelter for the breeding of species, as well as the preservation of crops, soil, and water quality, especially for residential and industrial areas that have cleared most of the forest for development purposes. In addition, this green space is also able to reduce energy consumption, especially the cost of energy for cooling buildings, because plants can increase air circulation and protect buildings from receiving direct sunlight. Therefore, accessibility and distance are very important factors to consider during the town planning process, especially for areas with a high density of population and industry [40,41]. Many other cities in Malaysia could emulate the concept of garden city implemented in Putrajaya, which has been proven to moderate the rise of temperature in the city.

Meanwhile, the concern of respondents regarding the effectiveness of international environmental agreements and declarations pertaining to climate change is well founded. This is because such environmental agreements and declarations are not clear in terms of whether they “legally bind” the countries that sign such agreements and declarations. Their enforcement mechanisms under the UN are also unclear and weak. If any country violates or does not comply with such agreements and declarations, there is no concrete action that can be taken against them. Therefore, the mission to reduce carbon emissions is difficult to achieve with this method [42].

The suggestions and views from the respondents are valid and timely. Their concerns regarding the effects of the manufacturing industry on the environment, as well as the success of the signed international agreements and declarations on the environment such as the Paris Agreement in 2015, are valid. Many researchers have long affirmed that a carbon tax on greenhouse gases, carbon trading, urban green space, and advancing low carbon technology are the way forward [36,37,40,41,42]. Thus, the role of the community is essential in using their community driven initiatives and purchasing power to put pressure on the manufacturing industry to be more environmentally responsible, and on the government authority to implement carbon tax, produce green spaces, and abide by climate change international environmental agreements and declarations.

Malaysia had a population of around 32.7 million in the middle of 2021 (an increase of 0.2% compared to in the middle of 2020), and Peninsular Malaysia has the highest population concentration (compared to Sabah, Sarawak, and Federal Territory of (W.P.) Labuan, with 11.7%, 7.5%, and 0.3%, respectively), with the state of Selangor being the most populated (21.1%) followed by Johor (11.6%). Although W.P. Putrajaya recorded the lowest population composition (0.4%), it recorded the highest population growth rate for the period of 2020–2021 at 5.4% [43]. Overall, the community members had a moderate (based on the result of subgroup analysis in Table 5) to strong (on certain items in Table 3) perception of population density as a contributor to the issues of climate change (Table 5).

Given the fact that most urban residential areas are densely populated, the majority of respondents would choose to reside in suburban areas should they be given a choice. This choice may help to address the issues of climate change. Among the motivational factors for choosing to live in suburban areas is fresh air, due to the air and lack of noise pollution in the suburban areas, as these have various positive implications, especially for physical health, as fresh and clean air can prevent dangerous diseases such as asthma and shortness of breath. Noise-pollution-free rural areas can also have positive implications for the mental health of the population, by providing a calmer and more comfortable environment, due to a quiet, slow, and relaxed atmosphere. In addition, the respondents stated that there are still green spaces in rural areas that can contribute to a higher rate of oxygen production, avoiding the increase in temperature and reducing the amount of greenhouse gas. The recent devastating recurring city floods in 2021 were another contributing factor to their choice.

For the explanation of the minority of respondents’ desire to live in urban areas, this study found that their choice was due to economic factors; e.g., more employment opportunities that can cover the cost of living. In addition, urban areas have more facilities that can meet the needs of the population such as hospital infrastructure facilities that can provide immediate health care, as well as more efficient and effective public transport to provide residents with a more efficient service compared to rural areas. However, to date, although Malaysia has adopted a smart urbanization concept, following the declaration of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the UN in 2016 [44], the efforts made by the Malaysian government towards sustainable urbanization strategies have not been holistic, as Malaysia has a state administration, where land is under state authority and jurisdiction. However, a few states, such as Malacca, have conducted sustainable urbanization strategies; i.e., on the western side of the historic city of Malacca, in terms of conserving the old buildings [45]. Another example is the state of Penang, which has also taken the steps of implementing sustainable urbanization strategies for the emerging city of George Town, in terms of planning strategies for livability and sustainability, i.e., the living capacity and ability of the city to provide welfare for its population, to achieve urban quality of life [46]. In this respect, campaigns for community alertness and initiatives suggested by the respondents to mitigate the effects of climate change are necessary to incorporate into state planning strategies.

All the suggestions from the respondents on managing population density, in order to reduce the effects of climate change, are not new. The reason for repeating these suggestions is the ineffectiveness of the implementation and enforcement of the suggestions on previous occasions [47]. Therefore, it is timely to integrate the community initiatives into the government efforts for mitigating the effects of climate change. Community initiatives such as the tree planting, composting, and city gardening activities suggested by the respondents deserve policy, financial, and technological support from the government.

Based on the result of the subgroup analysis in Table 5, overall the community members had a moderate perception of private motor vehicles’ contribution to the issues of climate change. However, based on the result in Table 4, their perceptions were varied; i.e., weak, moderate, and strong on different items. Among the countries in the ASEAN, Malaysia is in second place after Brunei in terms of car ownership ratio, i.e., 443 cars per 1000 people, and has a number of registered motor vehicles of 897 per 1000 population; while Brunei has 721 cars per 1000 population, and has a number of registered motor vehicles of 971 per 1000 people [48]. Hence, the findings of this study illustrate that the high use of motor vehicles is because most urban residents use private vehicles more often than public vehicles, due to convenience and the inefficiency of public vehicles provided by the government. Consequently, the rate of air pollution such as haze is also increasing, causing warmer temperatures and contributing to the climate change crisis. Additionally, the health of the urban population is affected. Researchers have observed that the increase in the number of private motor vehicles is due to preferred mode of mobility and lack of interest in public transport systems [49]. Public transport initiatives by the government of Malaysia, such as enhancing the bus and railway system, transforming Malaysia’s taxi system, and enhancing the integration of urban public transport systems as part of smart city initiatives face a number of barriers, such as weather, safety, security, and inappropriate infrastructure. Hence, the implementation of smart and eco-friendly mobility practices, such as cycling, carpooling, and car sharing are difficult [49]. Therefore, the respondents’ suggestions of increasing the efficiency of public vehicles, and improving and expanding railway services to cover more areas are important for the government to take into account. These suggestions may moderate the use of private vehicles, particularly during long weekends, school holidays, and festive seasons. Furthermore, the community may use their purchasing power to demand energy efficient private vehicles, hence reducing fuel consumption, as well as lowering the price of such vehicles.

All of the suggestions by the respondents in this study resonate with the Low Carbon Mobility Development Plan 2021–2030 [28], which was recently adopted by one of the university campuses in Malaysia, i.e., University Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia’s largest institution of higher learning funded by the Council of Trust for the Indigenous People (MARA). The university has 13 state campuses and 21 satellite campuses. The efforts focused on five greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction elements, namely energy, mobility, waste, greenery, and water bodies, using a city-based approach within the Low Carbon City Framework (LCCF), including the urban environment, urban infrastructure, and building criteria [50].

The community perceptions of the contributing factors and their suggestions to reduce the effects of climate change are vital for community driven future initiatives and for a more climate-friendly urban and suburban development in Malaysia. Climate change policies and guidelines alone are not enough to moderate the contributing factors from the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles. Urban and suburban community driven initiatives have important roles in reducing the effects of climate change [5,32].

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, the respondents of this study moderately perceived the climate change issue and the related human and environmental effects, such as unpredictable weather and health issues, as attributable to the factors of urbanization, namely the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles. Comparatively, the community members had a stronger perception of population density as a contributor to the issues of climate change, with mean value of 2.63; followed by the factor of private motor vehicles with mean values of 2.57, and manufacturing industry with mean value of 2.37. However, the result comparative means analysis of demographic characteristics against the three urbanization factors (i.e., manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles) illustrated little difference between the demographic subgroups, in terms of their perceptions, in that most of their perceptions were at a moderate level and very few perceptions were at a weak level. Nevertheless, the results of the per item analysis illustrated a range of weak, moderate, and strong level perceptions for different items. As for the demographic characteristics, the results of the multiple regression analysis demonstrated that they did not significantly predict community perceptions of the manufacturing industry, population density, and private motor vehicles as contributors to the issues of climate change. Whether they were male or female, young or old, belonging to one ethnicity or another, from one state or another, and resided in a urban or suburban area did not make a statistically significant difference in their perceptions.

The respondents also provided suggestions for reducing the effects of climate change, ranging from government policies to community actions. The respondents were well aware that the climate change issue occurs partly as a result of irresponsible human activities, particularly unsustainable urbanization processes. However, the respondents were also hopeful that the climate change issue can be addressed by the government policies on sustainability, particularly those that focus on reducing the effects of climate change. The role of the community was also highlighted by the respondents, as being responsible for shouldering the responsibility of addressing the issue of climate change at the individual and community level through means such as reforestation, tree planting, and reduction in fossil fuel consumption.

Thus, the short-term action plan by the government should be to enforce legislation and policies related to the environmental elements and natural resources in economic activities, whether the project is owned by the government or private developers, to ensure that economic activities take place in a sustainable and environmentally friendly manner. Long-term action planning by the government should cover the aspects of education of the community, whether in the formal or non-formal education system. The role of the community is just as important, if not more important, than the role of the government. Actions at the individual level in adopting environmentally ethical behaviors and not adopting consumer culture behavior in daily life contribute to the well-being of the global environment, particularly in addressing the climate change issue. Therefore, future research may be directed towards the roles of government, developers, the community, and individuals, pertaining to the efforts in reducing the effects of climate change.

This study contributes to the existing knowledge answers to questions regarding the community perceptions of the contributing factors to climate change and their suggestions for reducing the effects of climate change. Their perceptions of the contributing factors to climate change from the manufacturing industries, population density, and private motor vehicles, along with their suggestions to reduce the effects of the contributing factors to climate change should be valuable for the future preparation and planning of their communities.