Review on Water and Energy Integration in Process Industry: Water-Heat Nexus
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Strategic Framework
2.1. EU Energy System Integration Strategy
2.2. The Water-Heat Nexus (WHN) General Concept
3. Water and Energy Integration Technologies and System Retrofitting
- Heat-driven wastewater treatment [71].
3.1. Heat Recovery Technologies (HR)
Technology | Characterization | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Heat Exchanging Units | ||
Air–Gas Heat Exchangers(Air Preheaters) | Commonly applied for waste heat from exhaust gases of combustion processes to an air stream, having different configurations (recuperator, regenerator, rotary regenerator and run-around coil units) [122] and designs (plate heat exchangers [123,124] and heat pipe heat exchangers, HPHEs [125,126,127]). The HPHEs are specific air preheaters applied with a higher heat transfer capability and a need for less heat transfer surface area for the same quantity of heat. They have over fuel savings of 10–30% and less than a two-year payback time. | [122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134] |
Liquid–Gas Heat Exchangers(Economisers) | Applied for the heating of the liquid stream, such as a water stream at the inlet of a boiler or a steam boiler. They have different configurations (non-condensing, condensing, finned tube and coiled tubes). In some economisers, the liquid stream may be recycled for thermal energy efficiency improvement. They have a typical fuel savings of 5–10% at present and a payback time of less than two years. | [135,136,137,138,139] |
Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG) | Complex technologies commonly applied to generate steam for heating processes within a plant and the operation of thermodynamic cycles for electric energy generation. They are normally consist of an economiser (in which the liquid stream is preheated in order to attain the boiling point), an evaporator (in which the saturated liquid is converted into gas) and a superheater (in which the vapour is overheated beyond its saturation point). They have an overall plant efficiency of 85–90% and an electricity generation system efficiency of 75–85%. | [140,141] |
Thermodynamic Cycles | ||
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) | Similar to the Clausius–Rankine cycle (CRC), the working principle of this thermodynamic cycle consists of the capture of thermal energy from a heat source to evaporate an organic fluid. It is commonly implemented for low-grade WHR. The cycle generally consists of a turbine, an HRSG unit, a condenser and a pump (in many installations a regenerator is also installed to even further increase the system efficiency). With appropriate working fluid, it may lead to about a 6% increase in overall plant efficiency;.The organic fluids R-12, R-123, R134a and R-717 have been demonstrated as suitable to produce high-efficiency systems and a considerable amount of electric energy. It has an associated typical payback time four to five years. | [142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149] |
Kalina Cycle | A system similar to the CRC and ORC, using water-ammonia mixture as the working fluid and suitable for medium and high temperature applications. It is structurally similar to the Regenerative ORC, with an additional separator due to the high ammonia concentration of the turbine outlet gas stream (so as to assist the full condensation of the water-ammonia mixture). It presents an overall better WHR performance compared to the ORC, although it requires more maintenance. It has been assessed as having a minimum payback time of 5.8 years. | [150,151,152,153,154,155] |
Supercritical CO2 Brayton Cycle (SCBC) | A system with a similar arrangement to a common Brayton cycle, using CO2 at a supercritical state as the working fluid. It has several advantages: a higher thermal efficiency, operation at a lower pressure across the system and a reduction in number of stages in the turbine. The heat extraction capability may be limited due to the heat transfer in the heater being processed at a low temperature range close to the maximum cycle temperature. It has been assessed as having a payback time range between eight and twelve years. | [156,157,158,159] |
Thermal Energy Storage | ||
Liquid Thermal Tank | A sensible TES technology based on the heating of a liquid continuum within a tank. It may be a part of systems with several configurations, with different material streams being used as heat source streams (in addition to solar thermal collectors and boiler units), with a generic configuration being presented in Figure 2a. Water (working temperature of 0–100 °C), thermal oils (working temperature of 0–400 °C), molten salts (working temperature of 150–565 °C) or sodium (working temperature of 100–882 °C) may be used as the liquid media. It has been assessed to have an average payback time of 14 years. | [70,160,161,162,163,164] |
Phase Change Material (PCM) Heat Exchanger | A latent TES technology consisting of a heat exchanger operating in a transient mode. A specific application of this technology includes the preheating of combustion air at the inlet of a combustion-based process, using an exhaust gas stream as the heat source, as presented in Figure 2b. The transportation of the exhaust gas stream to the PCM–TES unit functions as the charging phase (in which the PCM phase in turn is almost completely melted) and the transportation of the air stream functions as the discharging phase (in which the PCM phase in turn is again solidified by releasing the latent heat). Common latent materials include: molten salts [165,166], metal alloys [167,168], eutectic inorganic [169] and organics [170,171,172]. It has been assessed to have a potential of 28.6–66.2% total energy savings and a payback time of 7.5–14.5 years. | [122,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200] |
3.2. Heat-Driven Wastewater Treatment Technologies (HDWTT)
Technology | Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Multi-Effect Distillation (MED) | An HDWWT technology with several operational advantages including: the use of low-temperature operational levels, the production of high-quality treated water, high thermal performance, the use of low pumping power, the requirement of minimum water pre-treatment and the requirement for minimum labour. Its limitations include: level of investment (highly expensive technology), considerable susceptibility to corrosion and existence of relatively low recovery ratio. A conventional MED unit may be divided into three sections: (i) first effect section (in which the heat source is a hot liquid); (ii) the second-to-last effects section (in which the heat source is the vapour stream produced in the immediately previous step for each particular effect); (iii) the condenser section (which condensates the last effect outlet vapour stream through heat transfer with the cold inlet saline water stream). It has been assessed to have a payback time of four to sixteen years. The overall process is represented in Figure 3a. | [71,201,204,205,206] |
Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSFD) | An HDWWT technology with an operation principal similar to MED, with the following advantages: higher resistance against scaling compared to MED, large capacity for freshwater production, independence from the salinity of feed water, operational and maintenance simplicity, low performance degradation, production of high quality freshwater and potential for combination with other processes. It has disadvantages, including: the level of investment (high investment technology), requirement for high-level technical knowledge, highly thermal energy-intensive process (high operational temperatures) and low recovery ratio. It has been assessed to have an average of 3.3 years payback time. The overall process is represented in Figure 3b. | [21,207,208,209,210,211,212] |
Membrane Distillation (MD) | An HDWWT technology that presents advantages in relation to conventional distillation technologies: low energy requirements, non-dependability from concentration polarization and lack of limit in feed water concentration. Its disadvantages include: investment cost (high investment cost associated to MD module) and possibility of membrane wetting in the case of the presence of surfactant and amphiphilic contaminants. It has been assessed to have a payback time between six and fourteen years. The temperature gradient within the MD module may be generated by a heat recovery system: single-loop as represented in Figure 3c (in which the heat source is directly connected to the membrane) or two-loop as represented in Figure 3d (in which a heat exchanger is implemented and also commonly a TES unit for transient mode systems). The MD module may have the following configurations: direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD); vacuum membrane distillation (VMD); air gap membrane distillation (AGMD); and sweeping gas membrane distillation (SGMD). | [213,214,215,216,217] |
4. Water and Energy Integration Systems (WEIS) for Process Industry
- Heat exchanger networks (HEN) (for heat exchanger installation-based heat recovery) [105];
- Water–energy networks (WEN) and water-allocation and heat-exchanger networks (WAHEN) (for water systems in which previously discharged water streams are recirculated to simultaneously decrease the use of freshwater and hot and cold utilities) [45].
- Waste heat stream recirculation to thermal processes (fuel savings);
- Waste heat stream recirculation to the heaters of the water system (hot utility savings);
- Waste heat stream recirculation to the heat-driven wastewater treatment units [201];
- Use of the sludge resulting from wastewater treatment as an additional energy source (fuel savings).
- Heating spots (total waste heat from thermal processes that may be allocated for savings in hot utilities);
- Wastewater treatments units (particularly in the heat-driven ones, wastewater treatment requiring minimum energy input).
4.1. Mass and Enthalpy Balances of a WEIS
4.2. Computational Tools for WEIS
5. Conclusions and Future Work
- The existing WHR technologies fulfil the technical specifications for the conceptualized WEIS;
- The existing TES technologies are adequate within the conceptualization of the proposed WEIS, although it is still necessary to perform a further study with respect to the applications of these in specific cases (e.g., within the scope of the recirculation of heat streams from thermal process systems to water systems encompassing an energy storage component).
- The existing technologies are adequate in the scope of the developed concept, although it is still necessary to research the specifications of these in terms of the characterizations of contaminant removal (namely specific types of contaminants and whether single- or multi-contaminant removal).
- The conceptualized WEIS concept is overall in accordance with the aims of the EU Energy System Integration, namely in terms of the practical implementation of circular economy principles;
- The conceptualized general WEIS scenario (as represented in Figure 5) may still have to be adapted in order to consider all potential recirculation of waste heat streams (namely as the heat source in the heaters and heat-driven wastewater treatment units of the water allocation and heat exchanger network), and furthermore, according to the requirements of different case studies;
- The existing computational tools (comprising simulation and optimisation models) are overall sufficient for the development of WEIS models, although further adaptations at the level of stream recirculation (connections between unit operations through material streams) must be performed.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Abbreviations | |
CCS | Carbon capture and storage |
CCU | Carbon capture and use |
CRC | Clausius–Rankine cycle |
DP | Dynamic programming |
EU | European Union |
GHG | Greenhouse gases |
HDWWT | Heat-driven wastewater treatment |
HEN | Heat exchanger network |
HR | Heat tecovery |
HRSG | Heat recovery steam generator |
LP | Linear programming |
MD | Membrane distillation |
MED | Multi-effect distillation |
MILP | Mixed-integer linear programming |
MINLP | Mixed-integer non-linear programming |
MOP | Multi-objective programming |
MP | Mathematical programming |
MSFD | Multi-stage flash distillation |
NLP | Non-linear programming |
NZLD | Near-zero liquid discharge |
PA | Pinch analysis |
PI | Process integration |
ORC | Organic Rankine cycle |
PCM | Phase change material |
SCBC | Supercritical CO2 Brayton cycle |
TES | Thermal energy storage |
WAHEN | Water Allocation and Heat Exchanger Network |
WEIS | Water and Energy Integration Systems |
WEN | Water-Energy Network |
WHN | Water-Heat Nexus |
WHR | Waste heat recovery |
Parameters | |
Specific enthalpy (J/kg) | |
Mass flow rate (kg/s) | |
Fuel lower heating value (J/kg) | |
Transferred heat (W) | |
Subscripts | |
Additional | |
Combustion air stream | |
Contaminant | |
Water system cooler | |
Cold utility | |
Exhaust gas stream | |
Fuel stream | |
Water system heater | |
Hot utility | |
Inlet | |
Baseline scenario (with no measures implemented) | |
Lower heating value | |
Outlet | |
Recirculated water stream | |
Useful | |
Water stream | |
Water-using process | |
Wastewater treatment unit |
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Pillar | Definition of the Guiding Principles | Contextualization of the Work |
---|---|---|
1st Pillar Energy Efficiency and Circular Economy Nexus |
|
|
2nd Pillar Renewable-Based Electrification |
|
|
3rd Pillar Alternative Low-Carbon Fuels |
|
|
Aspect | Progress | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Overview of Process Integration | Framework of process integration within the improvement of the use of utilities in industry and the involvement of numerical methods, including:
| [72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85] |
Pinch Technology for Energy Efficiency Improvement | Pinch analysis-based heat integration in industry, including:
| [86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105] |
Water Minimisation and Recirculation | Strategies for the minimisation of freshwater consumption and reduction in water footprint, through:
| [67,81,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113] |
Combined Water and Energy Integration | Research on the simultaneous application of Water and Energy Integration within a water network, considering:
| [54,114,115,116,117] |
Process/ System | Balance | Equation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Thermal Process | Mass Balance | (1) | ||
Enthalpy Balance | (2) | |||
Heat recovery equations | (3) | |||
(4) | ||||
Water System | Water-Using Process | Mass Balance | (5) | |
Enthalpy Balance | (6) | |||
Wastewater Treatment Unit | Mass Balance | (7) | ||
Enthalpy Balance | (8) | |||
Heater | Mass Balance | (9) | ||
Enthalpy Balance | (10) | |||
Cooler | Mass Balance | (11) | ||
Enthalpy Balance | (12) | |||
Recirculation Point (Splitting) | Mass Balance | (13) | ||
Enthalpy Balance | (14) | |||
Recirculation Point (Joint) | Mass Balance | (15) | ||
Enthalpy Balance | (16) |
Type | Description | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Simulation Tools | Applicable for scenario analysis, sensitivity analysis and further API-based integration with optimisation models. The unit operations simulation models included in WEIS may be developed overall using existing software packages and modelling languages, such as Modelica [221,222,223,224,225,226,227], TRNSYS [228], ASPEN HYSYS [229,230,231], Apros [232], AMESim [233] and MATLAB/Simulink [234,235]. The technologies/measures being simulated include hot air recycling as combustion air, the implementation of heat exchangers for water/air preheating, organic Rankine cycles, multi-effect distillation units and PCM heat exchangers. | [23,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235] |
Optimisation Tools | Optimisation models for heat recovery/water recirculation systems overall are within the categories of mathematical programming (MP) and pinch analysis (PA) method applications. The PA method is a holistic perspective for the application of a systematic approach for the planning of industrial systems, although it suffers from the adoption of a steady-state perspective only and a high number of assumptions about fluid properties and temperature profiles [48,52,54,57,236,237,238,239]. MP methods may be formulated to require less assumptions, but are less systematic in nature, and include linear and non-linear programming (LP, NLP, MILP and MINLP) [39,40,42,43,46,47,51,55,56,59,62,65,240,241,242,243,244,245], multi-objective programming (MOP) [45,246,247,248,249,250] and dynamic programming (DP) [251,252,253,254,255,256]. These optimisation models have been prominently developed using the Modelica, Python and GAMS languages. | [22,36,37,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,48,49,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,59,61,62,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257] |
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Castro Oliveira, M.; Iten, M.; Matos, H.A. Review on Water and Energy Integration in Process Industry: Water-Heat Nexus. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7954. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137954
Castro Oliveira M, Iten M, Matos HA. Review on Water and Energy Integration in Process Industry: Water-Heat Nexus. Sustainability. 2022; 14(13):7954. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137954
Chicago/Turabian StyleCastro Oliveira, Miguel, Muriel Iten, and Henrique A. Matos. 2022. "Review on Water and Energy Integration in Process Industry: Water-Heat Nexus" Sustainability 14, no. 13: 7954. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137954
APA StyleCastro Oliveira, M., Iten, M., & Matos, H. A. (2022). Review on Water and Energy Integration in Process Industry: Water-Heat Nexus. Sustainability, 14(13), 7954. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14137954