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Article

Incorporation of Silica Fumes and Waste Glass Powder on Concrete Properties Containing Crumb Rubber as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregates

by
Gurwinder Singh
1,
Aditya Kumar Tiwary
1,
Sandeep Singh
1,
Raman Kumar
2,
Jasgurpreet Singh Chohan
2,
Shubham Sharma
2,3,*,
Changhe Li
3,
Prashant Sharma
4 and
Ahmed Farouk Deifalla
5,*
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India
3
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266520, China
4
Department of Civil Engineering, GLA University, Mathura 281406, India
5
Structural Engineering and Construction Management Department, Future University in Egypt, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(21), 14453; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114453
Submission received: 24 July 2022 / Revised: 21 October 2022 / Accepted: 25 October 2022 / Published: 3 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Waste and Recycling)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Waste management is the first priority for many countries, so the focus of this research is on using waste materials in concrete as fillers and substituting concrete ingredients such as crumb rubber (CR) for fine aggregates. The utilization of waste rubber in concrete has gained attention recently, but CR substitution results in a reduction in mechanical and durability properties due to weak bonding and lower stiffness of CR. To overcome this issue, the addition of strength-increasing waste materials as cement substitutes is investigated along with CR (5%, 10%, and 15%) as fine aggregates and tested for the mechanical and durability behavior of concrete. Constant 10% waste glass powder (WGP) and 10% silica fume (SF) were substituted with cement in separate mixes. The main goal of this study is to investigate the suitable proportion of the materials from SF and WGP for enhancing rubberized concrete’s properties and to evaluate waste materials’ uses considering various parameters. The concrete is compared for both materials used as well as with control concrete and CR concrete for properties such as workability, compressive strength, tensile strength, density, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and dynamic modulus of elasticity. The reduction in compressive strength, tensile strength, workability, density, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and dynamic modulus of elasticity was observed due to the incorporation of CR, but also an increase in these properties with the incorporation of silica fumes (SF) and waste glass powder (WGP) as cement. It was observed that SF enhanced the properties of rubberized concrete better as compared to WGP. The 10% SF with 5% CR enhanced the compressive strength of rubberized concrete without SF by 11%. Similarly, 10% of WGP with 5% of CR enhanced the compressive strength of rubberized concrete by 6%.

1. Introduction

The most extensively used construction material in construction works, such as buildings, roads, dams, and bridges, is concrete. Cement and aggregates are the main materials in the manufacturing of concrete and the natural aggregates used are limited [1,2]. Waste management is a first priority concern for many countries, so the focus of this research is on using waste materials in concrete as fillers and substituting concrete ingredients such as CR for fine aggregates [3]. The main source of rubber waste is discarded tires from vehicles that are dumped in landfills, covering a large area of land and causing a threat to the environment. More than 5 billion tires will be scraped regularly by the end of 2030. The burning of tires is the easiest way for their disposal, but this causes serious health issues and releases toxic gases into the environment [4,5]. Scrap tires have high interest due to their availability as replacement of aggregates. However, the large-scale utilization of scrap tires used to replace aggregates is not possible due to the declination in mechanical strength and variability in properties [6]. A study on CR as a partial substitution of fine aggregates replaced 0% to 50% of natural aggregates and observed a loss in strength of around 80% with 50% substitution. The reduction in strength increases with the increasing content of CR. The ductility of concrete increased and an increase in compressive energy absorption was observed.
The mechanical and durability properties of concrete are significantly affected by the incorporation of CR. The loss in strength is contributed to the proportion of CR used. The size of the crumb rubber has a significant role in reducing the strength properties, and the larger size provides more loss in mechanical strength as compared to the finer size of CR [5,7]. The loss in mechanical properties is due to the weak bond between cement and CR and also because of the lower stiffness of CR. The increased content of CR also decreased the slump value, and the smaller size of CR showed more reduction in slump [8]. To overcome the reducing effect of the incorporation of CR, many authors suggested the pretreatment of CR with a NaOH solution or the substitution with other cementitious materials, such as silica fumes (SF), fly ash, and nano-silica [9,10]. In a study, the use of SF was introduced with CR replaced with fine aggregate. The reduction in the rubberized concrete mix with SF was lower than the concrete without SF in rubberized concrete. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was found to be reduced as compared to the control concrete but more reduced in the concrete without SF [11,12]. Ayman et al. [13] analyzed the dosage of rubber for aggregate replacement on a variable and constant slump. The effect of rubber on workability in the variable slump tends towards a slight reduction of up to 10% substitution; beyond that level, a severe loss is observed. The author observed more compressive strength loss in a variable slump as compared to constant slump mixes [13]. Different mixes with fine aggregate substitution with CR by 0% to 20% and 6% SF by the weight of cement for the high-strength concrete of M70 were prepared. A vast difference between 28 days and 91 days strength is observed. Around 15% reduction in strength was observed, up to 12.5% replacement, beyond which a high decline in strength was observed. The failure of rubber concrete was not brittle, whereas the control concrete showed brittle failure. The abrasion resistance of rubber concrete was more than that of the control concrete, 0.9 mm for 20% rubber versus 1.45 mm for the control concrete [14]. For the high strength of concrete, SF is used in concrete as a filler or as a limited replacement for cement. SF tends to increase the strength properties of concrete, but a slight decrease in workability was observed in a study. The elastic modulus had a negligible change for m25 concrete with cement partially replaced with SF 0 to 15%. The increase in strength may be due to lesser voids in concrete, and more surface area is the reason for the decline in slump value as more water is absorbed during the mixing [15]. Similarly, WGP was partially replaced for cement in concrete with 0% to 25% replacement considering the same water–cement ratio. The compressive strength increased at 90 days for 10% of glass powder replaced with cement. An increase was observed up to 20% substitution beyond its decreases [16]. Grinys et al. studied rubberized concrete with modification with waste glass powder and observed improvement in the properties of concrete. The glass powder showed better pozzolanic properties in the later stage than on the 28th day. The glass powder activates the cement so that the hydration process continues to the later stages and helps in achieving higher strengths [17]. Glass powder shows pozzolanic properties as it has high silica dioxide. The strength of glass powder concrete is reduced in the initial stages, but increases in later stages due to its later pozzolanic activity. Unit weight reduction is observed due to lower specific gravity than cement [18]. Manikandan and Vasugi conducted an experimental study using 25% to 40% WGP into ground granulated blast furnace slag along with metakaolin and tested it for the mechanical and fresh properties of the formed concrete. It was observed that the optimum replacement of WGP was 35%. However, the increase in the content of WGP decreases the mechanical properties. They also developed an Artificial Neural Network for assessing the workability and mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete and their findings revealed the Artificial Neural Network to be an efficient approach to assess the workability and mechanical properties [19]. In another study, 25% to 40% WGP was used in ground granulated blast slag along with fly ash and metakaolin. The authors concluded that, using ground WGP for preparing geopolymer concrete, increased the WGP level and, thus, the workability tends to increase due to the smooth surface area and lower water absorption ability. However, a 35% use of WGP decreases the mechanical properties of concrete [20].
In this research, the usage of waste rubber in concrete to produce sustainable and environmentally friendly concrete is discussed. CR’s partial replacement with fine aggregates in the percentages of 5%, 10%, and 15% is considered. Due to the softness of rubber, the strength properties of concrete decrease. To counter this decrease, a constant 10% substitution of cement with SF and WGP is considered. This rubber concrete with SF and rubber concrete with WGP is then compared to the control concrete as well as with each other.

2. Properties of the Materials

2.1. Cement

OPC-43 cement confirming to IS 8112:2013 [21] with the consistency of 32 and 3.15 specific gravity was used for the study. The initial setting time of cement was 58 min and the final setting time was 300 min. A compressive strength of cement of 46.7 MPa was achieved on the 28th day.

2.2. Fine Aggregates

Crushed gravel sand passed through a 4.75 mm sieve falling in zone III was considered fine aggregate as per IS-383: 2016 [22]. The fineness modulus and specific gravity of fine aggregates were 3.48 and 2.68, respectively. Figure 1 displays the particle size distribution.

2.3. Coarse Aggregates

For this study, angular coarse aggregates with a maximum size of 16 mm and retained on a 4.75 mm sieve, verifying IS-383:2016 [22], were used. The aggregates had a fineness modulus of 7.95, a specific gravity of 2.74, and water absorption of 0.5 percent. The aggregates utilized were readily available in the area. The particle size distribution is shown in Figure 1.

2.4. Additive Materials

2.4.1. Crumb Rubber

Crumb rubber (CR) passed through sieve of 2.36 in size and retained on 0.6 mm was considered for the partial substitution of fine aggregates (5%, 10%, and 15%) and the particle size distribution of CR is shown in Figure 1. The elemental properties of CR are in Table 1. As it can be seen from the SEM image shown in Figure 2b, the CR has an irregular shape. The shape of the particle is such that it can easily entrap air around it. The CR particle shown has a rough surface. The color of CR used is black, as shown in Figure 2a. The CR has a specific gravity of 1.15 and a mean size of mesh 20. The production of CR was conducted by mechanical grinding in a recycled rubber factory in Ludhiana, Punjab.

2.4.2. Silica Fumes

During the production of alloys containing silicon, silica fumes (SF) were collected from electric arc furnaces. Generally, SF has a size of less than 1 µm, but sometimes, particles become fused together to form agglomerates in sizes ranging from 1 µm to 100 µm, as shown in the SEM image in Figure 3b. It can also be seen from the SEM image that the shape of SF is spherical in nature, and the variation seen in size may be due to the formation of agglomerates. The easily transported form of SF is densified SF, which was used in this research. The color of SF was light grey, as shown in Figure 3a, usually caused by other elements present. The fusion of small particles of SF to form agglomerates is clearly seen in the SEM image. The surface of agglomerates seems to be rough, but it can easily break during concrete mixing [23]. The specific gravity of SF was 2.2. The elemental properties of silica fumes are shown in Table 1. The SF was used for a constant 10% replacement of cement to form rubberized concrete with 5%, 10%, and 15% of fine aggregates replaced with crumb rubber.

2.4.3. Waste Glass Powder

The waste glass powder WGP was obtained from broken glass bottles, crushed, and ground to form a fine powder. Figure 4a shows the sample of WGP, which is white in color. The SEM image of WGP particles in Figure 4b reveals that the fine WGP particles have smooth and shiny surfaces. The shape of WGP is irregular and the size is less than 70 µm, and it was used in the mix along with CR as fine aggregate substitution by 5%, 10%, and 15%. The WGP has a specific gravity of 2.57. Table 1 contains the elemental properties of the glass powder. The WGP was used as a constant 10% of cement replacement.

3. Experimental Program

3.1. Methodology

The experimental study was performed using an M30 grade mix. The mix was prepared in three phases. In phase 1, the concrete contains only CR for fine aggregate substitution with 5%, 10%, and 15% by weight of fine aggregates represented by C5, C10, and C15, respectively. Phase 2 contains WGP and CR as a substitution for cement and fine aggregates, respectively, whereas phase 3 concrete contains SF for substitution. The different types of samples of cubes and cylinders were cast in their mentioned sizes. Each sample type had 18 specimens per mix for test on the 7th day, 28th day, and 56th day for compressive strength, tensile strength, USPV, density, and dynamic modulus of elasticity. The SF and WGP were replaced as cement with a constant 10% by weight of cement in two different groups and CR was replaced as fine aggregates by weight with 5%, 10%, and 15% of fine aggregates. GC5, GC10, and GC15 are represented by 10% glass and varying percentages of CR in concrete. Similarly, SC5, SC10, and SC15 are represented by 10% SF and varying percentages of CR in concrete.

3.2. Preparation of Samples

A total of 18 samples of cubes and cylinders per mix of concrete were cast. Firstly, conventional concrete mixes were prepared and the required samples were cast. Then, the concrete with CR substitution with fine aggregates in the proportion of 5%, 10%, and 15% without the addition of any other material was cast. Subsequently, the mix contained a constant 10% substitution of SF as cement, and 5%, 10%, and 15% substitution of CR as fine aggregates. Similarly, another mix had a constant 10% substitution of WGP as cement and 5%, 10%, and 15% substitution of CR as fine aggregates. The percentage proportion of the required materials is shown in Table 2.

3.3. Mix Design

The design mix of M30 for a different group of the mix is shown in Table 3. IS 10262:2019 [24] was used for the control concrete mix design. The required quantities of various materials are also shown in Table 3. Ratios of 0.5 water–cement were considered for the calculations. All the mixes were prepared by hand mixing on a non-watery absorbing surface. Firstly, sand and cement were mixed until a uniform mix was achieved, and the aggregates were added and mixed with a shovel unless a uniform mix was achieved. After adding water and preparing the concrete, it was placed in the molds and the samples were cast; then, they were removed from the molds after not less than 24 h, and the specimens were placed in a water tank for curing.

3.4. Workability

To check the workability of the concrete, a slump cone test was performed confirming IS 1199:1959 [25]. The fresh state concrete was filled in a cone in 3 layers and the layers formed were tamped with a tamping rod 25 times; then, the mold was lifted and the concrete was allowed to displace according to its own weight. Then, the displacement was measured along with the original shape and the slump value of the concrete was checked.

3.5. Compressive Strength

For the compressive strength test, a cube size of 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm was used with a CTM (compressive testing machine) at a rate of 13.7 N/mm2/m as per BIS: 516-1999 [26]. After 24 ± 1 h, the samples were taken from the mold and cured in a water tank for the required sample age. Then, during the testing ages of the 7th, 28th, and 56th days, three samples from each combination were considered.

3.6. Split Tensile Strength

Cylinder samples of size 150 mm × 300 mm were considered to check the tensile strength of concrete under a CTM (compressive testing machine) at the rate of 13.7 N/mm2/m as per BIS: 516-1999 [26]. The samples were demolded after 24 ± 1 h and cured in a water tank for the required test age of samples. Then, three samples from each test age were considered from each mix, for the testing ages of the 7th day, 28th day, and 56th day.

3.7. Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity

The dynamic modulus of elasticity was calculated using ultrasonic pulse velocity and concrete density. IS 13311 (part 2): 1992 [27] conducted the USPV test on a cube specimen of 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm. The equation presented by Topcu and Bilir [28,29] expresses the dynamic modulus of elasticity.
E = ρ ( 1 + μ ) ( 1 − 2 μ ) ( 1 − μ ) × V 2
where E is the dynamic modulus of elasticity (MPa), V is USPV in m/s, ρ is the density in Kg/m3, and µ is Poisson’s ratio (0.2 to 0.35).

3.8. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

The ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete samples was determined for the quality of the concrete. The USPV test was conducted on a cube specimen of 150 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm by IS 13311 (part 2): 1992 [27]. USPV is expressed by the equation:
V = d t × 10
where V is ultrasonic pulse velocity (m/s), d is the width of the sample in mm, and t is the time taken by waves to travel in microseconds.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Workability

The slump values of all specimens are depicted in Figure 5. With the substitution of CR for fine aggregates, the slump value of concrete decreases, as shown in Figure 5. The behavior of decline in workability was similar for both mixes of SF with CR and WGP with CR. More than a 50% reduction in slump value was detected with a 15% replacement of CR as fine aggregates as compared to the normal concrete. A 40% decline with a 5% substitution of fine aggregates with CR was observed. The use of 10% WGP as cement (GC5) produces better results in terms of workability, boosting rubber concrete slump by 9%. The slight increase in concrete containing the WGP was due to smooth surface area and lower water absorption of WGP [28,29]; otherwise, the reduction in workability with the increased percentage of CR may be due to the irregular shape of rubber particles, a lower unit of CR increases the volume of aggregates and also increases aggregate surface area [30,31,32], whereas SF also needs more water for the reaction as the surface area increases, decreasing the workability of the concrete [31,33,34]. However, incorporating SF up to 10% of cement by weight has no or very little effect on the concrete’s workability as supported by Rao (2003) [35,36,37,38].

4.2. Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of all specimens is shown in Figure 6. Figure 6 shows that, as the amount of CR in the mixture increases, the compressive strength decreases. In comparison to the reference mix, the 15% replacement of CR as fine aggregates resulted in a 35% reduction in compressive strength. The soft nature of rubber, the weak link between cement and CR, and the lesser stiffness in rubber particles may all contribute to the reduction [32,39,40]. To counter this reduction, the substitution of cement with SF and CR with fine aggregates showed better results as compared to C mixes. It can be seen from Figure 4 that SC5 showed an increase in the 28th-day strength by 8% as compared to the reference mix and around a 21% increase compared to C5. Then, a further increase in CR in SC10 and SC15 decreases the strength. The 10% CR in SC10 had lower strength as compared to SC5 but has the strength to fulfill the mix design’s required strength. The increased strength is contributed to SF by filling the voids in the concrete [33,41,42]. Similarly, the concrete prepared with 10% substitution of WGP and CR showed a 5.5% increase in the 28th-day strength with 5% replacement of fine aggregates with CR as compared to the control concrete and 18% increase, when compared to C5. The same trend was followed by both WGP and SF. As per the 28th-day strength, SC5 performed better than other mixes. The 56th-day results show increased strength as compared to the 28th day’s result. This may have happened due to later pozzolanic activity of the glass powder and SF [34,40,43].

4.3. Split Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of CR concrete with and without SF and WGP is shown in Figure 7. Figure 7 shows that, as the percentage of CR increases, tensile strength decreases. The 15% substitution of CR as fine aggregates showed a decline of 29% in the tensile strength of the concrete as compared to the control concrete (reference) mix. The reduction may be because of the soft nature of rubber, due to which rubber particles act as voids and help in cracking early due to an increasing void ratio in concrete [35,36,38]. The substitution of cement with 10% SF and 5% CR with fine aggregates in SC5 showed better results as compared to C mixes. Figure 7 shows that SC5 had comparable results to the reference concrete in the 28th-day tensile strength, with a 3.5 percent improvement in tensile strength when compared to the R mix and an 12.8% increase when compared to C5. Then, a further increase in CR in SC10 and SC15 decreases the tensile strength [44,45,46]. The concrete prepared with 10% substitution of WGP and CR showed a 4.8% decrease in the 28th-day tensile strength with 5% substitution of fine aggregates with CR compared to the control concrete. This was followed by a decrease in tensile strength and by an increase in CR. The decrease in tensile strength is caused by the crumb rubber’s soft nature; the weak bond between the cement and rubber particles and the compressible nature of CR help to form cracks easily [34,40,47], but it was noted that tensile strength increases by 3.2% when compared to C5, an increase attributed to the fine WGP filling voids [48,49,50]. As per the 28th-day strength, SC5 performed better than other mixes. The 56th-day results show increased strength as compared to the 28th-day result. The GC5 showed an increase of 2.7% in the tensile strength of concrete compared to the reference concrete’s 56th-day tensile strength. This may have happened due to the later pozzolanic activity of WGP and SF [34,51,52].

4.4. Density

Concrete density depends upon the shape, type, and specific gravity of aggregates and cement. Figure 8 displays the variation in density on the 28th day of concrete prepared with CR as a fine aggregate substitution with and without SF and WGP. Figure 8 shows that, as the percentage of CR in the concrete increased, the density of the concrete decreased. It should be noted that CR has a lower specific gravity than fine aggregates, which have a specific gravity of 2.68, whereas CR has a specific gravity of 1.15. The density of the CR concrete without SF and WGP decreased with an increased percentage of CR [12,37,53] at around 10% density, when compared to the control concrete with 15% of CR. The decline is due to a very low unit weight of CR as compared to the fine aggregates [54,55,56].
Figure 7 also shows that, when cement is substituted with 10% SF and CR as a fine aggregate replacement, the density of the concrete produced is higher than that of the CR concrete. When compared to the CR concrete without SF, the density is improved by around 2%. However, due to the low unit weight of CR, the density of the control concrete still declines. The filling of cavities with small particles of SF and WGP, which densifies the concrete, may be the cause of the increase in density [39,57,58]. A similar trend is followed by the concrete with WGP and the CR concrete. Because the specific gravity of WGP is 2.57, which is 0.58 less than the specific gravity of cement, a small increase in density is attributed to the fine particles filling voids in the concrete [41,59,60]. When the cement was replaced with 10% WGP and 5% to 15% fine aggregates replaced with CR, there was a very small increase in density.

4.5. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity

Figure 9 shows the USPV of the CR concrete with and without SF and WGP. As can be seen in the graph, ultrasonic pulse velocity drops for CR mixes ranging from 0% to 15% with and without SF and WGP as compared to the control concrete. The reduction is due to CR’s tendency to trap air, causing signals to be absorbed [42,61]. The USPV decreases as the amount of CR in concrete increases. Figure 9 also shows that the USPV rises with concrete age, which might be attributed to the completion of the hydration process, which results in C-S-H gel filling the pores of the concrete, resulting in a higher USPV [42,62]. When the cement is replaced with 10% SF in the same concrete, an increase in USPV is observed may be due to silica fume particle filling the voids, helping to create a dense concrete, which can be the reason for the increased USPV as compared to the CR concrete without SF. An increase of 5% in USPV is observed in SC5 when compared to C5. Similarly, the WGP replaced with 10% cement in rubber concrete increased USPV as compared to the rubber concrete without WGP by filling the vacant pores in the concrete and helping in the travel of the ultrasonic waves. However, it was also noted that CR has more influence on the concrete as the substitution of SF and WGP for cement helps to increase USPV but not more than the control concrete. However, the USPV of the concrete with 15% CR is questionable, whereas with CR content up to 10%, the concrete’s USPV value is good [43,63].

4.6. Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity

The dynamic modulus of the concrete of all mixes is shown in Figure 10. The dynamic modulus tends to decline with an increase in the CR proportion in the concrete. The dynamic modulus depends on the density and USPV of the concrete, which was discussed in Section 4.4 and Section 4.5. The lower unit weight of the rubber reduced the density and air entrapped in rubber particles and created voids, decreasing USPV. As both parameters decrease, this affects the dynamic modulus of elasticity by reducing it. It is understood from Figure 8 that the dynamic modulus of rubber concrete decreases by 24.8%, 41%, and 60% for 5%, 10%, and 15% substitution of fine aggregates with CR, respectively.
Similarly, as was seen in Section 4.4 and Section 4.5, the substitution of SF in the cement for the rubber concrete increased some of its properties, due to which the dynamic modulus of elasticity also increased. The dynamic modulus for SC5 is 15% higher than C5 but 14% lower than the control concrete. With the substitution of 10% WGP in the cement, the dynamic modulus change was not effective as it was in the case of SF in the rubber concrete, but it somehow increased the dynamic modulus of the rubber concrete by 3%. The rise in dynamic modulus may be due to the voids filled by SF [40,43,64]. For the purpose of improving the performance of “recycled aggregate concrete (RAC)”, the two “modification methods” were employed in the study by Li et al. (2021), including “spraying colloidal nano silica (NS)” and “silica fume (SF)” onto the surface-layer of “RCA” [65]. It was shown that “spraying colloidal NS” and “SF” on the surface of “RCA” significantly improved the “mechanical characteristics” and “durability” of the material [65]. However, the performance enhancement was greater with the “larger particle sizes” of “NS”. “Microhardness studies” also showed that “spraying colloidal SF” on “RCA” did not only enhance the newly formed mortar in “RAC”, but also the new “interfacial transition zone (ITZ)” [65]. This study contributed to the development in knowledge regarding improving the functionality of “RAC” in order to achieve the same level of performance as “natural aggregate concrete” [65]. Li et al. (2022) have systematically investigated the effects of “alkali-activated slag/glass powder pastes” based on “sodium silicate” on “silica fume (SF)” characteristics [66]. A study of properties of the freshly prepared pastes (such as “setting time”, “flow spread”, “rheological behavior”, and “compressive strength”) was conducted on “AASG pastes”. To explain the “rheological properties”, the “precursors” were observed to disperse in the “alkali solution” [66]. In order to comprehend better the underlying processes behind the “setting time development” and “compressive strength” of “AASG pastes”, “heat evolution” and “microstructural properties” have been analyzed [66]. As a result of the findings, diverse formulations of “SF” with different “pH values” had different effects on the “setting time” of “AASG pastes” [66]. It is possible to enhance the “yield stress” and “plastic viscosity” of fresh “AASG paste” by incorporating “SF” at “low shear rates” (less than 10 s−1), yet significantly reduce its “plastic viscosity” at “high shear rates” (more than 20 s−1) [66]. With increasing “SF content”, “AASG paste” had an overall increase in “compressive strength”, but a reduction in “strength” as well. The optimal “SF content” should be around 10%. A study by Li et al. (2020) analyzed and discussed the “rheological behavior” of one-part “alkali activated slag/glass powder (AASG) pastes” with “solid sodium water glass (Na-WG)” as the “activator” [67]. A systematic evaluation was performed to evaluate the influence of “water to binder (W/B)”, “activator to binder (A/B)”, “GP content”, and the “addition of silicon fume (SF)”, and “calcium aluminate cement (CAC) admixtures” [67]. With the same “flow value”, the “AASG paste” exhibited a higher “plastic viscosity”, whereas the “OPC paste” exhibited a higher “yield stress” [67]. With an improvement in the “A/B ratio”, the “plastic viscosity” of “AASG paste” was enhanced. By increasing the concentration of “GP” in the “AASG paste”, the “yield stress” and the “plastic viscosity” of the paste were reduced [67]. The “fine size of particles” and “sphere-like shape” of “SF” enabled it to considerably enhance the “yield stress” of the “AASG paste”, while decreasing its “plastic viscosity” [67].

5. Conclusions

This study focused on the utilization of waste rubber in concrete to produce sustainable and environmentally friendly concrete. In this study, CR was considered a partial replacement for fine aggregates in the amounts of 5%, 10%, and 15%. The soft nature of rubber caused the strength properties of concrete to decrease. It was proposed to gradually replace cement with SF and WGP by 10% to offset this decrease. The rubber concrete with SF and rubber concrete with WGP was then compared with the control concrete and with other mixes. We analyzed parameters such as workability, compressive strength, tensile strength, density, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete. Based on this experimental study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
i.
The workability of the concrete decreases with an increasing proportion of CR in all kinds of mixes, but the decrease in slump value of concrete with WGP substitution as cement was found to be less than the other two mixes group. On the other hand, SF had no effect on the workability of the CR concrete, despite the fact that the workability was worse in both situations than in the control concrete.
ii.
The compressive strength of concrete containing CR tends to decrease due to the softness and poor bonding of the cement and rubber particles. However, the 10% substitution of SF as cement in the rubber concrete (SC5) increased strength by 21% of rubber concrete (C5) without SF and an 8% increase in strength compared to the reference concrete. Additionally, the 10% substitution of WGP as cement in the rubber concrete (GC5) showed a rise in strength by 18% of the rubber concrete without WGP (C5) and a 5.5% rise in strength compared to the reference concrete. The increase may be due to the pozzolanic reactivity of the materials and also the void filling properties of the fine particles.
iii.
The tensile strength of the rubber concrete was reduced due to poor bonding. Incorporating 10% SF and 10% WGP as cement in the rubberized concrete increased tensile strength compared to rubberized concrete without SF and WGP. A 12.8% increase in split tensile strength was observed in SC5 and a 3.2% increase in split tensile strength of GC5 when compared to C5. SC5 showed a tensile strength increase as compared to the reference concrete by 3.5%, whereas GC5 showed a decrease in strength as compared to the reference concrete.
iv.
The density of the CR concrete tends to decrease due to the unit weight of CR being fairly low when compared to that of the aggregates. SF enhances the density of rubberized concrete by filling spaces with fine particles; however, the effect of WGP on density was much smaller than that of silica fumes. The density of concrete decreased by 3% for 5% CR up to 5.7% decrease for 15% CR used in the rubber concrete without SF and WGP. With the incorporation of 10% SF and WGP in the rubber concrete, SF improved the density of CR concrete without SF by 1%, and WGP improved the density of rubber concrete without WGP by 0.4%. The improvement in density is maybe due to filling the empty voids with fine particles.
v.
The ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete generally suggests the quality of the concrete. In rubber concrete without SF and WGP, the pulse velocity tends to decrease. However, the incorporation of SF and WGP as 10% cement increased the pulse velocity of concrete by filling voids and dense the concrete but not more than the reference concrete. The increase in pulse velocity was about 6% in the case of SF (SC5) and 1% in the case of WGP (GC5) when compared to C5. The observed concrete quality from pulse velocity of 5% and 10% CR was good, but for 15% CR used, the quality of concrete was observed as questionable.
vi.
The dynamic modulus of concrete was affected by density and USPV. As density and USPV drop, so does the dynamic modulus. Only the CR’s soft nature and reduced unit weight contribute to this drop in dynamic modulus. Although the SF enhanced various qualities, it did not outperform the control concrete. The dynamic modulus of elasticity of CR concrete (C5) dropped by 24.8% for 5% CR and 60% for 15% CR replacement as compared to the reference mix. The incorporation of SF and WGP increased the dynamic modulus of concrete by 15% in SC5 and 3% in GC5 when compared to C5.

6. Limitations and Future Recommendations

The use of CR as a substitute for aggregates is restricted to a lesser percentage of replacement (up to 10%), beyond which the qualities of the produced concrete are seriously reduced, although it may be used to make lightweight concrete with minimal alterations. Rubberized concrete can benefit from CR pretreatment to increase its fresh and mechanical properties. A deep investigation of CR concrete, including silica fumes and waste glass powder, is required.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.S., A.K.T., S.S. (Sandeep Singh), R.K., J.S.C. and S.S. (Shubham Sharma); methodology, G.S., A.K.T., S.S. (Sandeep Singh), R.K., J.S.C., S.S. (Shubham Sharma) and J.S.C.; formal analysis, R.K., J.S.C., S.S. (Shubham Sharma), C.L. and A.F.D.; investigation, G.S., A.K.T., S.S. (Sandeep Singh), R.K., J.S.C., S.S. (Shubham Sharma) and C.L.; writing—original draft preparation, G.S., A.K.T., S.S. (Sandeep Singh), R.K., J.S.C., S.S. (Shubham Sharma) and P.S.; writing—review and editing, S.S. (Shubham Sharma), C.L., P.S. and A.F.D.; supervision, S.S. (Shubham Sharma) and A.F.D.; project administration, S.S. (Shubham Sharma) and C.L.; funding acquisition, S.S. (Shubham Sharma) and A.F.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No data were used to support this study.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Future University of Egypt for paying the Article Processing Charges (APC) of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

RReference Concrete or Control Concrete
WGPWaste Glass Powder
SFSilica Fumes
CRCrumb Rubber
USPVUltrasonic Pulse Velocity
SEMScanning Electron Microscope

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Figure 1. Particle size distribution of materials.
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of materials.
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Figure 2. (a) Sample of crumb rubber used and (b) crumb rubber particles under SEM.
Figure 2. (a) Sample of crumb rubber used and (b) crumb rubber particles under SEM.
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Figure 3. (a) Sample of silica fumes used and (b) silica fumes particles under SEM.
Figure 3. (a) Sample of silica fumes used and (b) silica fumes particles under SEM.
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Figure 4. (a) Samples of waste glass powder and (b) waste glass powder under SEM.
Figure 4. (a) Samples of waste glass powder and (b) waste glass powder under SEM.
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Figure 5. Variation in a slump of rubberized concrete.
Figure 5. Variation in a slump of rubberized concrete.
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Figure 6. Compressive strength of rubberized concrete.
Figure 6. Compressive strength of rubberized concrete.
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Figure 7. Tensile strength of the rubberized concrete.
Figure 7. Tensile strength of the rubberized concrete.
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Figure 8. Variation in density of the rubberized concrete.
Figure 8. Variation in density of the rubberized concrete.
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Figure 9. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of the rubberized concrete.
Figure 9. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of the rubberized concrete.
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Figure 10. Dynamic modulus of elasticity of the rubberized concrete.
Figure 10. Dynamic modulus of elasticity of the rubberized concrete.
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Table
Table 1. Elemental properties of waste glass powder, silica fumes, and crumb rubber.
Table 1. Elemental properties of waste glass powder, silica fumes, and crumb rubber.
Silica FumesWaste Glass PowderCrumb Rubber
Elements% Mass% Mass% Mass
Carbon (C)--69.71
Oxygen (O)48.1344.6822.61
Sodium (Na)0.758.723.78
Magnesium (Mg)2.301.91-
Aluminum (Al)0.990.98-
Silica (Si)39.3834.98-
Sulfur (S)1.57-3.90
Potassium (K)3.70--
Calcium (Ca)1.998.73-
Iron (Fe)1.19--
Table
Table 2. Proportion of materials.
Table 2. Proportion of materials.
MixCement (%)Silica Fumes (SF) (%)Waste Glass Powder (WGP) (%)Crumb Rubber (CR) (%)Fine Aggregates (%)
R100000100
C510000595
C10100001090
C15100001585
GC590010595
GC10900101090
GC15900101585
SC590100595
SC10901001090
SC15901001585
Table
Table 3. Mix proportion of materials as per the mix design.
Table 3. Mix proportion of materials as per the mix design.
MixCement
(kg/m3)		Crumb Rubber
(kg/m3)		Silica Fume
(kg/m3)		Waste Glass Powder
(kg/m3)		Fine Aggregates
(kg/m3)		Coarse Aggregates
(kg/m3)		Water
(kg/m3)
R394---6731135197
C539433.65--639.51135197
C1039467.3--605.71135197
C15394100.95--572.051135197
GC5354.633.65-39.4639.51135197
GC10354.667.3-39.4605.71135197
GC15354.6100.95-39.4572.051135197
SC5354.633.6539.4-639.51135197
SC10354.667.339.4-605.71135197
SC15354.6100.9539.4-572.051135197
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Singh, G.; Tiwary, A.K.; Singh, S.; Kumar, R.; Chohan, J.S.; Sharma, S.; Li, C.; Sharma, P.; Deifalla, A.F. Incorporation of Silica Fumes and Waste Glass Powder on Concrete Properties Containing Crumb Rubber as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregates. Sustainability 2022, 14, 14453. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114453

AMA Style

Singh G, Tiwary AK, Singh S, Kumar R, Chohan JS, Sharma S, Li C, Sharma P, Deifalla AF. Incorporation of Silica Fumes and Waste Glass Powder on Concrete Properties Containing Crumb Rubber as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregates. Sustainability. 2022; 14(21):14453. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114453

Chicago/Turabian Style

Singh, Gurwinder, Aditya Kumar Tiwary, Sandeep Singh, Raman Kumar, Jasgurpreet Singh Chohan, Shubham Sharma, Changhe Li, Prashant Sharma, and Ahmed Farouk Deifalla. 2022. "Incorporation of Silica Fumes and Waste Glass Powder on Concrete Properties Containing Crumb Rubber as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregates" Sustainability 14, no. 21: 14453. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114453

APA Style

Singh, G., Tiwary, A. K., Singh, S., Kumar, R., Chohan, J. S., Sharma, S., Li, C., Sharma, P., & Deifalla, A. F. (2022). Incorporation of Silica Fumes and Waste Glass Powder on Concrete Properties Containing Crumb Rubber as a Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregates. Sustainability, 14(21), 14453. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114453

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