The Industrial Potential of Fique Cultivated in Colombia

Abstract

The fique plant (Furcraea sp.) is a native plant of the Andean region with a great capacity to adapt to different environmental conditions, of which only 4% of the plant is used for developing natural fibers. The comprehensive use of fique and its by-products represents a source of opportunities for the industry and can play an important role in achieving sustainable development. The available literature suggests that fique fiber, juice, and bagasse could boost sectors such as agriculture, construction, the pharmaceutical industry, power generation, and the development of environmental solutions, among others. This review article could help researchers to understand the fique production system, introduces research experiences, and analyze the potential of recent developments for the industry.

1. Introduction

The growing world population is driving the intensification of agricultural production. The arable lands dominate 38% of the world’s land area, and almost 30% of the world’s net primary production is for human sustenance [1].

Another type of agricultural production is industrial crops with non-food uses, such as fibers, other industrial products such as cotton, tobacco, jatropha, and fique, and raw material for bioenergy, among others [2].

The fique plant does not compete with food uses and is tolerant to severe water stress due to its ability to recycle carbon dioxide through CAM metabolism (crassulacean acid metabolism) [3]. The fique fibers are extracted from the plant leaves by mechanical methods. The extraction does not include solvents, which provide production without traces of fique contaminants, concentrated mainly in long fibers and fibrous residue with more than 85% humidity [4,5].

Fique is a native plant from the Andes region, and it spreads to other South American countries because of its adaptability to many environmental conditions [6]. Colombia is the first fique grower in the world, with an estimated 15,000 hectares planted by 2019 and a production of 30,000 tons of fique fiber, known as cabuya, which begins the cultivation of the plant by extracting the fiber, its uses and commercialization [7].

The cultivation of fique in Colombia represents the main economic activity of around 70,000 peasant economy families. Fique is grown in 10 departments of the country, where the Nariño department is the first producer, with 37.92% of the national total, followed by Cauca with 36.82%, Santander with 11.55%, Antioquia 11.04%, and Guajira 2.67% [3,8].

The fique fiber consumption by the industry in Colombia is around 25,000 tons of fiber/year. The national companies can increase its demand from 9000 tons/year to 13,000 tons/year due to the increase in the packaging uses for the coffee and cocoa export sector, as well as the fiber demand for the production of textile products and handicrafts, mainly [9,10]. According to the industrial consumption, around 70% of the fiber is used in packaging manufacture. The production of agromantles and geotextiles employs nearly 15%, 10% in cords and ropes, and 5% in mattresses manufacture [11].

At the global level, there is a deficit of jute and sisal fiber with characteristics similar to fique fibers, which become an opportunity for growth and competitiveness in the fique sector [12]. The more demand for fiber, the higher volumes of the fique residues in the field will generate because the fiber represents only 4–5% of the total leaf harvested. The remaining 95–96% corresponds to residues from the fiber extraction process and is made up of the liquid contained in the leaf, called juice and some leaf and fiber fragments, known as bagasse [7,9,10].

The residues of the fiber extraction process, called by-products, are usually abandoned by farmers on the land without any use. Every year nearly 93,400 tons of fique bagasse and approximately the same amount of juice are generated and left on the farms [13,14]. The liquid residues spontaneously filter into soils or migrate to water sources, constituting an environmental impact factor due to their COD, BOD₅, saponins, steroids, and minerals contents [9,14].

In addition, the waste of 96% of the fique leaf, together with the few existing functionalities of the fiber during most of the 20th century, has led the fique producers to be characterized as producers of a peasant economy with little income, low level of schooling and with official poverty indicators located at the lowest levels [15].

The generation of new functionalities for the different by-products becomes an option to offer higher income and better quality of life to the fique communities. At the same time, it can reduce the residue impact caused on their environment and offer a source of raw material of natural origin for the industry.

In recent decades, new fique applications have been developed both for fiber [4,16,17,18,19], as well as for juice [20,21,22], and bagasse [13,23,24], in a way that promotes sustainable growth based on the transformation of renewable and low-cost resources [25].

Studies carried out by Guancha-Chalapud et al., based on a circular economy model, propose a feasible option to revalue up to 7500 tons of waste per year from the Colombian fique agribusiness [7].

This review presents a description of the fique production system in Colombia and a compilation of the most relevant applications of the fiber, bagasse and juice developed in recent years. In addition, an analysis of the challenges and opportunities for the different products found and multi-criteria decision-making matrix (MCDM) for potential technology transfer was made.

2. The Fique Plant

The fique plant (Furcraea Vent.) forms part of a group of xerophytic monocotyledonous species. It belongs to the Asparagaceae family, the Agavoidea subfamily, and is native to the Andean region of South America [9,26]. The genus Furcraea includes more than 400 species located in Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Mexico, Costa Rica, India, Sri Lanka, Algeria, and Madagascar [27].

The fique plant has a thick stem of about 30 cm in diameter and can reach a height between 2 and 7 m. From the stem emerge several linear-lanceolate leaves in the form of rosettes. The leaves have dimensions between 1 and 2 m in length and 10–20 cm in width [15,27,28]. Figure 1 shows the fique plant.

The most cultivated species in Colombia are F. macrophylla Baker, F. cabuya Trelease and F. castilla [26,29]. F. macrophylla is known as Uña de Águila, with spines on the margin of its leaves, being the most cultivated in Nariño and Cauca departments [26]. F. cabuya, known as Ceniza, is characterized by having light and strong fibers, widely used in handicrafts, and F. castilla, also called Bordo de Oro, with a yellow coloration on the margin of the leaf [29].

There are three alternatives for the propagation of the fique plant. Sexual propagation is by seed, and is very rare due to different maturation times of stigmas and stamens [14]. Asexually, the fique plant reproduces through “hijuelos” and “bulbillos”. The “hijuelos” are small seedlings with three or four true leaves that grow at the base of the main stem. The “bulbillos” are structures that develop from meristematic buds located in the plant inflorescence [30].

The fique is considered a rustic plant that adapts to different ecological zones. However, the number and size of the leaves and the quantity and quality of the fiber depend directly on the soil type, the amount of daily light, temperature, and rainfall [14]. The plant develops adequately at 19–23 °C temperatures, a height above sea level between 1300 and 2000 m.a.s.l., 1000–1600 mm per year of rainfall, relative humidity between 50 and 70%, and sun exposure of approximately six hours a day [31]. The best soils have medium texture, present good porosity, and good natural drainage. This way, the excess water is eliminated, and the tissues prevents rotting. In addition, it is recommended to manage the crop in silica-clay soils with a pH between 5.5 and 7.0 [32].

3. Fique Production System in Colombia

The fique production system in Colombia comprises an initial seedbed stage, where the seeds germinate, and the seedlings develop until they are ready for planting in the definitive site. Subsequently, the plantation follows, which requires a period of at least 4–5 years to reach sufficient maturity for post-harvest. In this stage, the leaves are cut and defibrated to obtain the fique fiber, called “cabuya”. Figure 2 illustrates the different stages of the fique production system in Colombia.

In the fique production system, a plot of land separated from the plantation is managed and occupied for a period not exceeding eight months for the growth of “hijuelos” (Figure 3a) and 16–18 months for the “bulbillos” (Figure 3b) before transplanting to the final growing area. These plots are usually located in parts of the farm close to the farmer’s house to carry out a more frequent intervention in the care of the seedlings. A seedbed aims to provide the plants with the necessary conditions and care for their full development, especially concerning weed elimination because the faster weed growth prevents receiving sunlight to the seedling [33].

In this way, the seedbed helps getting fique plants of approximately 50–70 cm in height, with a vigorous development in their root and foliar systems to be transplanted.

There are two seedbed systems for fique cultivation in Colombia. The first consists of directly sowing the seedling in soil beds approximately 1.2 m wide, previously prepared with organic matter (Figure 3c). There, the “Hijuelos” or “bulbillos” are planted at a distance of 15–20 cm for the adequate growth of the seedlings. The seedbed is located in an open-air area on land with good runoff to avoid the water accumulation. This system has a cost per unit of around 10 ¢.

The second fique seedbed system consists in sowing the seedlings in black plastic bags, with dimensions of 12 × 20 cm (Figure 3d). The bags are previously filled with soil fertilized with organic matter. This system allows locating the seedlings near the farmer’s property, regardless of the land topography. The bags used to be placed on a table to separate the plants from the ground. This system has a cost per unit of around 15 ¢.

3.1. Fique Crop

Once the seedlings reach a height between 50 and 70 cm, they are transplanted from the seedbed to the definitive site. Traditionally, farmers sow fique plants on the perimeter of other crops or on the property boundaries. As a peasant economy crop, fique farmers allocate the best land on their farms to species considered by them to be more profitable, such as coffee or “pancoger” plantations, as those species for self-consumption are called, destined for satisfying part of the food needs of the producers [34]. In perimeter crops, fique plants are usually planted in individual sowing furrows with distances of 1.5 m between plants to make enclosures that function as living barriers.

In recent decades, the establishment of fique in monoculture or compact cultivation has been increasing. In this system, the land is used exclusively for fique production. The establishment includes a double intercalated furrow, with distances of 1.5 m between furrows and 2 m between plants, with a space of 3–4 m in the streets. This distribution allows a planting density of 2000–2500 plants per hectare [8].

During the first year of cultivation, different maintenance activities are carried out, such as weed control, fertilization, and preventive pests and diseases management. Weed control is carried out frequently during the first months due to the low height of the plant. When the plant grows, the weeds height does not exceed the fique plant one, and the control is done every three months.

The employment of synthetic fertilizers has not been a common practice in traditional production systems. The fique plant is considered a rustic species and can develop in soils classified as “poor” due to its low content of macro/micronutrients and lack of organic matter. However, with the development of intensive production systems, organic matter and specific fertilizers are beginning to be incorporated into integrated management practices.

For its part, the pest and disease control is related to the presence of the “Macana” or “Rayadilla” disease, caused by the Fique Necrotic Streak Virus, belonging to the Dianthovirus genus of the Tombusviridae family [35]. Macana is the most common and limiting disease with the highest impact on the crop in Colombia and consists of progressive and necrotic deterioration in the leaves, significantly affecting the fiber quality [35].

3.2. Fique Postharvest

After 4–5 years of cultivation, the fique plant reaches the necessary maturity to carry out the post-harvest for obtaining fiber. This process is usually done once a year, especially in the months with less rainfall, although some producers prefer to divide it into two times throughout the year, using half of the leaves on each occasion. The fique post-harvest comprises the stages of leaf cutting, mechanical defibration, and fiber drying.

3.2.1. Leaf-Cutting

The farmers cut the leaves manually, using knives or machetes. Only the most mature leaves are cut, i.e., those leaves with an angle of 0–30° to the horizontal, as shown in Figure 4. They usually cut 15–20 leaves per plant in a single annual harvest. The cutter leaves approximately 5 cm from the base of the leaf, taking care not injure the leaves that remain standing due to the plant health can be affected [36]. Farmers select the groups of leaves in the best conditions in terms of size, color, and maturity to ensure fiber quality.

In physiological terms, the plant must have a minimum of 20 leaves for its biological process to continue. In fique crops with biotypes that have prickles on the leaves, an additional step called “desespinado” is carried out to remove the prickles on the leaf margin with a knife. Once cut, the leaves are deposited on the ground, forming piles and then transferred to the defibration area (Figure 4).

3.2.2. Leaf Defibration

After the cutting process, the leaf defibration is carried out, which consists of mechanically extracting the fiber. It corresponds to the sclerenchyma tissue, separating it from the mesophyll of the leaf. There is a machine with a series of metal rotors to remove the mesophyll from the leaf, exposing the fibers.

In the defibration process, the leaves are stripped to reduce entanglements and facilitate fiber extraction, as shown in Figure 5. The process begins by introducing the leaf into the machine (Figure 5a), first by the base, the thickest part, extracting approximately ¾ of the leaf (Figure 5b). Then, the leaf is inverted and entered through the tip until it is totally defibrated (Figure 5c).

The defibration should be carried out in a period not exceeding 12–15 h after cutting. The aim is to prevent a physiological deterioration in the leaf called “palisade leaf” that complicates the extraction and affects fiber quality. After defibration, the fiber is shaken and put together in bundles corresponding to twelve leaves (Figure 5d–f) [36].

The personnel required to perform the cutting and defibration will depend on the capacity of the fiber extraction machine. For machines of 250–300 kg fiber/day and 400–500 kg fiber/day, the personnel required is presented in

Table 1. Personnel required to perform the defibration process.

Machine	250–300 kg Fiber/Day	400–500 kg Fiber/Day
Cutters	1	2
Porters	2	4–5
Machine Operators	2	3

.

After the leaf defibration, a process is carried out to eliminate the greenish color of the fiber. In previous years, the color removal used to be done through liquid fermentation (Figure 6) in 1–2 m³ cement tanks built by the farmers. According to [36], fermentation was considered necessary to obtain quality fiber since the action of microorganisms increases the temperature and organically decomposes the matter that accompanies the fiber. Likewise, the chemical compounds of the fique detach the cellulose fragments present in the fibers, as shown in Figure 6.

However, fermentation implies the employment of high amounts of water, approximately 200 L per day. It represents high loads of saponins, sugars, proteins, alkaloids, and elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and potassium coming from the juice attached to the fiber [9,21]. This liquid waste is usually dumped on site, going to nearby water sources.

In recent years, the dry process has been carried out, shaking immediately after the extraction to drying later in sheds. There, periods of light and darkness alternate so that the fiber acquires the characteristic light yellow coloration.

3.2.3. Fiber Drying

After desfibration, the fiber is still impregnated with leaf juice. For that reason it is deposited in piles for 12 h, where it undergoes dry fermentation, as shown in Figure 7a. Then, a manual shaking of the fiber bundles is carried out to remove fragments of fiber and bagasse that remain attached after extraction.

After shaking, the fiber is spread out in the “secadero”, which is a structure similar to a clothesline (Figure 7c,d). In a period of 1–3 days, depending on weather conditions, the fiber color changes from green to yellow (Figure 7e). Once the fiber is dry, the bundles are assembled again (Figure 7f). The bundles form packages of approximately 40–50 Kg (Figure 7g). The last part of the process consists of controlling the humidity to ensure values close to 12% and storing it. The fiber can last 2 to 3 years in storage.

4. Fique Plantations in Colombia

The fique area planted in Colombia was 15,790 hectares in 2020, of which 13,951 hectares were harvested, with a production of 19,703 tons.

Table 2. Area, production, and departmental performance for 2017–2020 [37].

	Planted Area (Ha)				Harvested Area (Ha)				Production (Ton)				Performance (Ton/Ha)
Department	2017	2018	2019	2020	2017	2018	2019	2020	2017	2018	2019	2020	2017	2018	2019	2020
Nariño	5982	6134	6196	6200	5775	5947	6020	6162	7454	7742	8882	8730	1.29	1.30	1.48	1.48
Cauca	5199	5283	5761	5780	5119	5346	5608	5798	7528	7537	7087	7043	1.47	1.41	1.26	1.26
Santander	898	815	883	891	595	895	819	808	1356	1377	1259	1200	2.28	1.54	1.54	1.54
Antioquia	2061	1991	2109	2150	683	761	788	793	1040	1123	1405	1400	1.52	1.48	1.78	1.78
Guajira	314	370	612	630	77	269	282	282	385	1091	1115	1254	5.00	4.21	3.95	3.95
Risaralda	102	106	59	71	106	106	59	63	85	85	47	45	0.80	0.80	0.80	0.80
Boyacá	35	37	35	38	35	35	35	35	24	23	26	23	0.68	0.67	0.70	0.70
N. Santander	14	14	14	16	6	6	6	6	3	3	4	4	0.50	0.50	0.67	0.67
Caldas	1	12	12	14	1	1	4	4	1	1	4	4	1.00	1.00	1.02	1.02
Total	14,610	14,760	15,680	15,790	12,397	13,366	13,621	13,951	17,886	18,982	19,829	19,703	1.62	1.43	1.47	1.47

presents the area, production, and departmental performance for 2017–2020. According to the planting area in the last seven years, it has grown by 2%. Factors such as agroclimatic phenomena, early flowering of crops, and fiber prices have caused losses and slow growth in the sector [37].

The departments of Nariño and Cauca represent 37.92% and 36.82% of the planted area and 45% and 36% of the national production, respectively [37].

The fique is cultivated in Antioquia by tradition as an associative crop, used in the perimeter [38]. By 2014 there were 1511 hectares planted, being the fourth producing department with a share of 11.04% after Cauca (36.82%), Nariño (37.92%), and Santander (11.55%) [37]. At the same year, Compañía de Empaques S.A creates a promotion scheme for the sowing of fique as an agro-industrial monoculture in Antioquia. The sowing of fique monocultures began with 50 Ha and reached 1500 Ha by 2019 [39,40].

By 2016, Antioquia had 1579 hectares compared to 16,990 hectares identified nationally and registered a production of 1730 tons compared to 18,078 tons, contributing 9% of the total area and production [38]. In Antioquia, fique cultivation is distributed in 23 municipalities with 1053 producers. Amalfi municipality has the highest percentage of producers, with 27%, followed by Urrao, Barbosa, San Vicente, Concepción, and Anorí. In addition, three associations were identified: AsdeFique Antioquia, which represents the largest number of producers, Asofiagir, and the Municipal Association of Fiqueros [38].

According to the Statistical Yearbook of Antioquia 2018, the percentage of participation by municipalities in the area planted with fique was of 62.73% to Amalfi, 10.15% San Vicente, 7.87% Urrao, 6.28% Barbosa, 3.52% San Roque, 2.56% Anorí, 1.7% Gómez Plata, 1.13% Girardota, 1.1% Giraldo and 2.96% others. The percentage of the production volume by municipality was of 33.82% to San Vicente, 22.67% Urrao, 16.93% Amalfi, 13.56% Barbosa, 4.52% Giraldo, 1.95% San Rafael, 1.89% Girardota, 1.81% Concepción, 1.22% Don Matías and 1.62% Others [41].

The projection of fique production in Antioquia is estimated at 2633 tons for 2021, 2926 tons for 2022, and 2926 tons for 2030, only for compact planting. It represents a bagasse production of approximately 26,330 tons by 2021, 29,260 tons by 2022, and 29,260 tons by 2030, for an average yield of 73–83 tons/day of bagasse [42]. Global dissolving pulp production capacity was over 7 million tonnes in 2015, with China producing almost 20% of the world share. Numerous pulp manufacturers provide a competitive price, thus optimizing the production cost of the cellulose fibers [43].

It is worth noting that the hectares planted in 2014 with the Compañía de Empaques S. A. program began fiber production recently, with a yield of 1600 Ton in Amalfi by 2020 [40].

The national yield of dry fiber per year is calculated at 2 Kg/plant when there is an already established crop. For crops in their first year, the expected yield is 0.7 Kg, 1.0 Kg for the second, 1.5 Kg for the third, and 2 for the second year [10]. The number of fique plants/ha in agro-industrial crops is 2660 [42], to obtain 5.2 tons/ha-year at peak production.

5. The Use of Fique Products

Traditionally, fique has been cultivated in Colombia to extract the fiber contained in the leaf. It has been used to manufacture packaging, threads, fabrics, espadrilles, or decorative objects by artisan producers [10]. At an industrial level, companies such as Compañía de Empaques S.A., Empaques del Cauca, Hilanderías del Fonce and Industrias Spring S.A., use the fiber as a raw material for the production of packaging, sacks, ropes, agrotextiles, mattresses, among others.

The fiber, which corresponds to the sclerenchymal tissue of the leaf, constitutes only 4% of the total leaf composition [25], as shown in Figure 4a. The remaining 96% corresponds to the mesophyll and the epidermis. It comprises a liquid residue called “juice” (51%) and “bagasse” (45%) which is a set of solid residues from the different tissues of the leaf, plus fiber fragments that come off during the defibration process (Figure 8).

For many years, the juice and bagasse were considered waste from the fique post-harvest process and were not used by farmers [44]. These residues were abandoned in situ, becoming environmental risk factors for the nearby ecosystem.

In recent decades, fique research has been oriented to find applications for the residues becoming the fique production system more efficient and profitable. Although the sector currently does not have sufficient infrastructure and equipment necessary for the comprehensive use of fique by-products [12], different R+D projects have generated numerous applications for fiber, bagasse, and juice.

5.1. Fique Fibers: Targeted Product from the Beginning

Fique fiber, also known in Colombia as cabuya, is a leaf vegetable fiber. It is considered a hard and long fiber with little flexibility and softness [45,46].

It is the result of a strategic cellular process carried out by the plant to implement a multipurpose system of internal transport of water and nutrients, permeability for the cell wall, structural rigidity, and a barrier to the attack of microorganisms and oxidative stress [47]. This process is due to the formation of a thick secondary cell wall by the sclerenchyma cells in the final phase of maturation [48,49]. This secondary cell wall is located between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall. It is formed through the assembly of macromolecules of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin [49,50,51].

Fique fiber has a high content of holocellulose (74.36%) and a low content of lignin and pectin (14.23 and 6.15%, respectively), as shown in Figure 9. Cellulose constitutes the highest fique fiber fraction with a value close to 56%. This chemical composition gives it a rusticity typical of leaf fibers, which have traditionally limited their functionality to the textile industry, especially that corresponding to cordage and packaging (Figure 9).

In fique, as in other natural plant fibers, cellulose content influences are directly the mechanical properties. It is due to the orientation of its microfibrils with its longitudinal axis. The microfibers are parallel to the axis when the other components of the lignocellulosic biomass decrease [27,45].

Fique fibers are composed of a series of monofilaments organized in the form of a fiber bundle, with a diameter ranging between 150 and 320 µm and a density between 0.6 and 1.1 g/cm³ [4,19,52,53] (See

Table 3. Physical and mechanical properties of fique fiber.

Properties	Values	References
Young’s modulus (GPa)	8.0–24.0	[18,27]
Tensile strength (MPa)	200–600	[4,19,52]
Elasticity (%)	3.2–5.7	[19]
Diameter (µm)	150–320	[4,52,53]
Fiber density (g/cm3)	0.6–1.1	[4,52]
Ultimate elongation (%)	6.0–10.0	[54,55]

).

According to its mechanical behavior, fique fiber has a tensile strength between 200 and 600 MPa and Young’s modulus between 8 and 24 GPa, showing a capacity to reinforce composites.

In recent decades, fique fiber has been investigated as a raw material for new products with applications in different areas such as composite materials, bio-insulation, supports for bio-separations, construction, and the textile industry, among others [6,54,56,57,58].

5.1.1. Reinforcement in Composite Materials

Composites are a combination of materials where the union of a matrix phase with a reinforcing one allows the improvement of the properties of the whole. Their physical-mechanical performance depends on the properties and characteristics of each phase, as well as the arrangement of the fibers in the composite and their interfacial quality [53].

The employment of natural fibers as reinforcement of composite materials has become relevant due to the need to reduce environmental damage, sustainable manufacture, and biodegradable products with low-cost raw materials [18,55]. The fique fiber presents appropriate physical and mechanical properties to be used as a reinforcement of composite materials [54,59]. Recently, various studies have developed composites with different types of matrix combined with this type of fiber [60,61,62], as shown in

Table 4. Applications of fique fibers on biocomposites manufacturing.

Application	Matrix	Year	Observations	Reference
A low-density polyethylene and aluminum (LDPE-Al)/Fique fiber composite.	Low-density polyethylene and aluminum (LDPE-Al)	2015	The material was obtained from the recycling of post-consumer long-life Tetra Pak packaging. The incorporation of fique fiber on the composite induce nucleation points of spherulites. The spherulites promote increased crystallinity on the polyethylene phase of the materials evaluated in 10.7% with reference LDPE without fibers or aluminum), leading to improved thermal properties.	[60]
A fique fabric-reinforced polyester composite.	Polyester resin	2019	Multilayered armor systems (MASs) with a front ceramic followed by a front layer made of 30 vol.% fique fabric-reinforced polyester composite was made.	[62]
A fully biobased composite.	A natural resin from the Elaeagia Pastoensis Mora plant	2020	The composite comprises a natural resin from the Elaeagia Pastoensis Mora plant, known as Mopa-Mopa reinforced with fique fibers. An increase of the tensile strength and the Young’s modulus was observed when a 20% of fibers superficially modified by an alkalization treatment were incorporated.	[56]
(PLA)/(PCL)/(TPS)/Fique fiber Biocomposites.	Polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and thermoplastic starch (TPS)	2020	Biocomposites with a ternary matrix of polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and thermoplastic starch (TPS) and reinforced with fique fibers. The low quality of the interface was reflected in the low loading values. However, the inclusion of alkalized fique fibers improved the composite tensile strength by approximately 30% compared with that of the native fiber composite.	[57]
Polymer composites reinforced with natural fabric	DGEBA/TETA epoxy resin	2021	The composite was manufactured to possible ballistic armor for personal protection against different levels of ammunition	[63]
The manufacture of a student chair with fique fiber reinforced composite material.	Polyester resin	2021	A composite material with five layers of fique fiber (24.9% by weight of the composite) showed a maximum stress of 27.30 MPa and a maximum modulus of elasticity of 0.725 Gpa.	[18]
A natural fiber reinforced laminated polymer composites	Epoxy resin	2021	This material has a lower rigidity when compared to the epoxy resin, and showed a better behavior under stress conditions as well.	[6]

.

The fiber has thermal properties that allow it to withstand temperatures up to 220 °C without degrading. Besides, it has low density values compared to other fibers, which makes it ideal for use in composite materials due to its low weight [54]. However, the hydrophilic nature of the fiber is inconsistent with the hydrophobicity of the polymeric matrices, meaning a poor quality at the interface. To this end, chemical pretreatments such as alkalinization, impregnation of polyethylene and silanization have been developed [53]. It modifies the fiber surface and increases the interface quality.

In addition, the amount of reinforcing fiber has proven to be significant in increasing the properties of the composite. Muñoz-Vélez et al. found that the mechanical response of the composite increased as a function of the amount of pretreated fiber added in composites made with a matrix of low-density polyethylene combined with aluminum (LDPE-Al) [53].

The development of new products using composites of polymeric matrices reinforced with fique fibers began to appear in the last decade. Gómez-Suarez et al. manufactured a student chair using a polyester resin composite and 24.9% fique weight, which presented maximum stress of 27.3 MPa and Young’s modulus of 0.725 GPa, resisting a load of 100 kg [18].

For their part, Pereira and collaborators carried out tests with polyester composites reinforced with fique fabric used as raw material in the elaboration of a multilayered armor system (MAS) with application in the area of ballistic [62,64]. The development demonstrated similar performance to those using Kevlar™ conventionally, instead of composite, at a cost 13 times lower.

In addition to polymeric matrices, fique fiber has been used in biocomposite production. Mina Hernández and collaborators developed a composite using a natural resin known as Mopa-Mopa, extracted from the Elaeagia pastorensis Mora plant [56,61]. The researchers found that the fique fiber addition allowed the material’s tensile strength to be increased by 15 to 30 MPa, making it possible to use it as wood-plastic composites (WPCs) or to replace plastic or wood products that are currently used. In the same way, Mina-Hernández et al. developed biocomposites with a ternary matrix of polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and thermoplastic starches (TPS), reinforced with fique fibers [57].

5.1.2. Bioinsulators

The intention to include elements that entail sustainability, energy efficiency and respect for the environment in built environments has led to the search for new materials [58,65]. One of these elements is related to thermal and acoustic insulation. The search for sustainable thermo-acoustic insulation materials has become part of the green building strategy for saving fossil fuels and reducing greenhouse gases [52].

Natural plant fibers, including fique, have become a relevant alternative for thermoacoustic insulation. In recent years, several studies on the thermal and acoustic properties of the fique fiber have been developed for a potential application as a bioinsulating material, as shown in

Table 5. Applications of fique fibers as a bioinsulator material.

Application	Year	Observations	Reference
Thermal insulator material	2019	Thermal characterization	[66]
Thermoacoustic insulator material	2020	Fique nonwovens sound absorption, flow resistivity, dynamic stiffness, thermal conductivity	[52]
Thermal insulator material	2007	Morphological analysis, thermal conductivity, kinetic study of its thermal decomposition	[17]
Thermoacoustic insulator material implementing mycelium, fique, and grass	2021	Thermal conductivity, thermal reflectance, and soundproofing	[67]
Thermoacoustic insulator material implementing coconut, fique, and recycled cotton	2021	Thermal conductivity, dynamic stiffness, sound absorption	[58]

.

So far, the research is in its initial phases, directed towards the morphological characterization of the fiber and the determination of properties such as thermal conductivity, thermal reflectance, flow resistance, dynamic stiffness, and sound absorption.

According to the morphological analysis carried out by Gómez et al., fique fiber has a higher air permeability due to its rounded cross-section, which improves acoustic absorption and insulation [52]. Furthermore, according to the researchers, their hollows and porous structures increase the resistance to friction between sound waves, where air compression and sound wave expansion can also occur within the fiber lumen.

The recent thermal characterizations have shown that fique fiber has a thermal conductivity between 0.03 and 0.08 W/mK, meaning a potential material for thermal insulation [17,66].

In acoustic terms, although sound absorption is influenced directly by the fiber diameter (150–320 µm) and its flow resistivity (6433.84 ± 532.7 Rayls/m), fique nonwovens can be considered sound-absorbing materials, above 1000 Hz particularly [52]. In addition, in assays developed by Navacerrada et al., the fiber presented a dynamic stiffness of MN/m³, a resonance frequency (ꬵ₀) of 98 Hz, and an improvement in airborne noise insulation (ΔRW) of 12.1 dB [58].

5.1.3. Versatile Supports

Fique fiber has shown the versatility to be used as a support for immobilization and adsorption processes, as shown in

Table 6. Applications of fique fibers as a support for pollutants removal.

Application	Year	Observations	Reference
Au nanoparticles/Fique fiber nanobiocomposite	2012	The material was testing to selectively remove sulfur compounds from complex mixtures	[68]
MnO2-Fique fiber bionanocomposite to dye removal	2013	The bionanocomposite was able to remove up to 98%, in less than 5 min.	[69]
Biosorbent to Removal of sodium and chloride	2016	The material exhibits high removal capacities (13.26 meq/g for chloride ions and 15.52 meq/g for sodium ions)	[70]
Iron nanoparticles-Fique fiber biosorbent to the degradation and mineralization of Orange II	2018	The nanostructured maerial yield up to 93.23% Orange II degradation.	[71]
ZnO nanoparticles-Fique fiber biosorbent to dye removal	2020	The highest color removal was 90% in 180 min.	[72]
Activated carbon obtained from fique fibers to RB46 dye removal	2020	The highest RB46 color removal was 95% under dye concentrations of 100ppm.	[73]
Enzyme modified-Fique fiber biosorbent to RB5 dye removal	2022	Enzyme-pretreated fique fibers presented the highest dye removal of 66.29%, representing a 36% increase in RB5 dye removal	[74]

.

Original and modified fique fiber has also been applied as a biosorbent support. Agudelo et al. evaluated the fiber in desalination processes, finding a high capacity for removing chloride ions (13.26 meq/g) and sodium (15.52 meq/g), four times higher than that achieved with synthetic resins [70].

One fiber modification has been the inclusion of nanoparticles for the bionanocomposites formation. It combines the advantages of natural biopolymers as resistance and biodegradability with the adsorption capacity of inorganic materials. Castellanos and collaborators synthesized Au nanoparticles “in situ” on fique fiber [68]. The resulting fique-Au NPs bionanocomposite, stabilized by strong interactions between the electron-rich cellulosic surface of the fiber and metal NPs, allowed the researchers to remove selectively sulfur compounds from complex mixtures.

In the same way, Chacón-Patiño et al. synthesized in situ MnO₂ nanostructures on fique fiber to be used in the Indigo Carmin dye removal in water [69]. The bionanocomposite removed up to 98% of the dye in contaminated water in less than five minutes. In addition, the inclusion of ZnO nanoparticles in the fique fiber allowed Llano et al. to remove more than 70% of the Indigo Carmin dye in 180 min [72]. For their part, Bastidas et al. functionalized fique fiber by impregnation with aqueous iron solutions for the degradation and mineralization of the Orange II dye, using heterogeneous Fenton reactions [71]. In these tests, a dye degradation of up to 93.23% was achieved.

The modification of the fique fiber for its application as support to remove contaminants has also been carried out with biological tools, such as enzymatic degradation treatments. Muñoz-Blandón et al. enzymatically modified fique fiber with pectinases to increase its ability to remove azo dye from textile industry wastewater [74]. It was found that the enzymatic modification changed the distribution of charges on the fiber surface, improving the ability to capture dye molecules by 36%, compared to the original fiber.

In addition to using fique fiber directly, it has also been used as a raw material for manufacturing other products. Castro and Salazar elaborated an activated carbon from fique fiber using the chemical activation technique, capable of removing the Basic Red 46 (RB46) dye from contaminated water with concentrations below 100 ppm, achieving a 95% dye removal and an adsorption capacity of 9.039 (mg/g)/(L/g) of RB46 with an adsorption intensity of 0.730 [73].

5.1.4. Construction Material

In the construction sector, there is a need to replace asbestos fiber as raw material due to the high risk that it implies to health. Different materials have been considered to replace it as a reinforcing fiber in cement and concrete elements, such as fiberglass, polypropylene, wood, acrylic, coconut, sisal, and fique fibers [75].

Since the 1970s, natural fibers have been used as reinforcement for cement-based products for roofing applications, especially in countries where these fibers are produced locally or obtained at competitive prices [76,77].

Fique fiber has shown to be suitable for low-cost housing applications when incorporated into a matrix based on Portland cement, being appropriate for manufacturing elements of various shapes through simple production processes [78]. Different investigations have evaluated the use of fique fiber as a reinforcer of cement matrices, as shown in

Table 7. Applications of fique fibers as a reinforcing material to cement-based products.

Application	Year	Observations	Reference
Fique fiber reinforced cementitious sheets	2010	Sheets reinforced with fique fibers shown better mechanical properties than asbesto reinforced ones.	[75]
Cementitious roofing tiles reinforced with fique fiber	2011	Tiles were exposed during 14 years under weathering conditions and evaluated in terms of microstructure and physical properties.	[78]
Fique cellulose nanofibers as bio-based cement additive	2019	The FCN act as viscosity-modifying agents in fresh cement pastes and as microcracking-preventing agents in cement pastes.	[79]
Fiber fique as a sustainable material for concrete reinforcement.	2021	The fique fibers increased the flexural strength of concrete	[19]

.

Delvasto et al. elaborated corrugated sheets for roofs, using fique fiber as a cement reinforcer [75]. When reviewing their mechanical behavior, they found that sheets reinforced with 3.3% fique fiber resisted a bending load of up to 2875 N/m, surpassing those with 10% asbestos, which resisted up to 2400 N/m.

These products have proven to have good durability. Research conducted by Tonali et al. evaluated fique fiber-reinforced cement tiles used for 14 years on the roof of a house [78]. Despite being exposed to different weather conditions, the tiles showed no visible signs of deterioration, and their shape and stability were maintained. Regarding their physical properties, the tiles increased their water absorption capacity by 14% and their apparent void volume percentage by 10.5% [78].

Assays carried out by de Moya-Abril evaluated the feasibility of fique fiber as a concrete reinforcer [19]. The results indicate the fiber can be used to manufacture concrete elements such as slabs, beams, and half-length lintels. With the development of nanotechnology, new alternatives for fique fiber applications have been generated in this area. Gómez-Hoyos et al. obtained fique cellulose nanofibers and evaluated them as an additive for cement paste [79]. The nanofibers interacted with the cement particles and the mixing water. It exponentially increased the field stress of the cement paste with increasing fiber content. In this case, fique nanofibers act as viscosity modifying agents in fresh cement pastes and as microcracking preventive agents in cement pastes exposed to high temperatures.

5.2. Juice and Bagasse

Fique juice and bagasse result from the defibration process of the plant’s leaf. The separation of fique juice and bagasse for its use requires adaptation in the defibration area, where the machine is located. For this, the research group CIBIOT (Centro de Estudios y de Investigación en Biotecnología, in its Spanish acronym), assigned to the Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana from Medellín, Colombia, has designed a system to collect and separate the juice and bagasse, as shown in Figure 10.

The system has a layout that simulates the behavior of a baghouse filter. The system is arranged at an inclination between 20° to 40° according to the local topography. Said system comprises a multiplicity of filtration membranes made with the same fique bags (coffee bags), separated by 50 cm from each other, which perform a series separation and are attached to a structure of variable cross-section, which is reduced as the juice flow passes through it by gravity. The length of the system is a function of the amount of paste coming from the fique sheet shredding system, where a recommended dimension is 3 m.

Simultaneously to the collection of fique juice, the bagasse is separated manually. It must be dried in the sun for its conservation, avoiding the proliferation of microorganisms that deteriorates the waste as raw material.

The separation of the juice and the bagasse must be carried out in the field, since its sugar and solid content decomposes in just 12 h, changing the color from green to yellow and later to brown, indicating degradation, which means that there is already transformation of compounds of interest.

5.2.1. Fique Bagasse

The bagasse corresponds to the solid residue of the defibration process. In Colombia, around 93,400 tons of bagasse are produced annually, which are abandoned “in situ” by farmers due to the lack of knowledge of application alternatives [73]. However, different investigations have been developed in recent decades to characterize the material and evaluate its behavior, as shown in

Table 8. Different applications of fique bagasse.

Application	Observations	Year	Reference
Chlorothalonil biosorbent	The fique bagasse is a material with potential to be used in adsorption of pollutants.	2010	[80]
Biogas production	The fique bagasse generates about 0.21 million m3 CH4/year	2012, 2014	[73,81]
Particleboard production	Potential applications in furnitures manufacturing.	2017	[82]
Fique cellulose nanofiber/silver nanoparticle (Ag NP) hydrogels	Potential applications in biomedicine.	2018	[29]
Biochar production	The material was evaluated on caffeine and diclofenac adsorption processes.	2019, 2020	[13,23,24]
Energy precursor through combustion and gasification	The bagasse showed a thermal efficiency greater than 90% and a potential of use as energy close to 80% in the combustion gasses.	2021	[83]
Foamed material obtained from cassava starch	The incorporation of the bagasse increased the expansion index, density, compressibility and water absorption.	2020	[84]

.

According to Escalante et al., the use of fique bagasse in anaerobic digestion processes could generate around 0.21 million m³ CH₄ per year (0.329 m³ CH₄/kg of volatile solids) with a minimum profitable plant of around 2000 tons/year and an internal rate of return of 10.5% [5,81].

For this, Quintero et al. evaluated the physicochemical characteristics of bagasse. They found it is a carbon source with a calorific value of 3297.91 kcal/kg and high concentrations of lignocellulose, and a C/N ratio suitable for biogas production. Besides, the bagasse has a C/N ratio suitable for biogas production if there is a specialized microbial consortium for lignocellulose degradation [73,81]. The ruminal liquid inoculum presented an important hydrolytic activity of 0.068 g COD/g VSS day with the evaluated microbial consortium. With a pig waste sludge inoculum, it achieves a high methanogenic activity (0.146 g COD/g VSS day). The combination of these two sources of inoculum allowed to obtain a potential yield of biomethane of 0.3 m³ CH₄/kg VS ad.

For its part, Valdés and collaborators determined the energy value of fique bagasse used as fuel through combustion and gasification [83]. Combustion tests showed the process is thermally stable and compatible with the autothermal operation, with a thermal efficiency greater than 90% and potential use of close to 80% in combustion gases. In addition, gasification produced the best quality of synthesis gas at an ER of 0.23, with a conversion higher than 96% and an HHV greater than 5.0 MJ/Nm³. It qualifies this gas as a potential heat source or as fuel for power generation in internal combustion engines and microturbines [83].

In addition to using the fique bagasse directly, the bagasse is employed as a raw material for biochar production. This material has been evaluated with excellent results in adsorption processes for emerging contaminants such as caffeine and diclofenac [13,23]. Correa-Navarro et al. obtained an adsorbent capacity of 80.6 mg/g of caffeine and 57.13 mg/g of diclofenac with a biochar obtained by pyrolysis at 850 °C and a residence time of 3 h [24].

Other studies developed with fique bagasse have found potential applications for hydrogel production from fique cellulose nanofibers and Ag nanoparticles in aqueous media or the adsorption of pesticides such as chlorothalonil [29,80]. Also, it has been employed in the manufacturing of chipboard with potential use in furniture, kitchens, or interior divisions or in the fabrication of foamed materials obtained from cassava starch to replace petroleum-derived polymers [82,84].

5.2.2. Fique Juice

The fique juice is a suspension with variable characteristics, depending on the age, the season, and the soil fertility. It is ocher green in color and has a characteristic and corrosive odor. Its density measured at the experimental level is 1.02 kg/L, and its pH varies between 4 and 5 [44]. The composition of this juice is known qualitatively. It comprises water (85%), cellulose (6%), and organic matter (8%) composed of chlorophyll, sugars, carotenoids, saponins, sapogenins, steroids, organic acids, tars, flavonoids, lignin, lipoids, urea, nitrogen, and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus, and potassium. It is used in veterinary medicine to eliminate lice and mites that attack animals and in the textile and leather industry in bleaching [85].

The fique juice is a complex matrix composed of sugars, saponins (steroidal or triterpene glycosides), sapogenins (saponin aglycones), or fatty acids. These compounds can generate different effects on organisms and effluents. Saponins are secondary metabolites widely distributed in the plant kingdom. They are present in various parts of the plant, such as the bark, leaves, roots, and even flowers. Saponins are composed of an aglycone of the steroidal type (C27) or triterpene (C30) linked to fractions of hydrophilic glycosides, which gives it amphiphilic characteristics [86].

In the present century, different investigations have been developed to use the fique juice in its natural state or as raw material for transformation processes, as shown in

Table 9. Different applications of fique juice.

Application	Observations	Year	Reference
Saponin extraction and its use as a fungicide.	Saponin is extracted by a foaming technique and used to control Phytopthora infestans.	2007–2010	[87]
Cement concret Additive	Adequate compression strengths and voids parameters can be obtained adding 5% of liquor in concrete mixes. The additive improves the resistance to sulfates and carbonation.	2009	[88]
Adjuvant of coagulation to the treatment of leachate from landfill.	This additive improved on 15% removal of turbidity and COD of 9%	2012	[21]
Bioethanol production	Bioethanol produced by Clavispora lusitaniae, a fique native yeast	2013	[89]
Plant disease control	Control to Phytopthora infestans, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Hemileia vastatrix phytopathogens	2012, 2014	[90,91,92]
Sapogenic amphiphilic glycosides as a coagulation–flocculation aid.	This coagulation-flocculation aid causes an additional color and turbidity reduction of 31 and 17%, respectively.	2016	[22]

.

Due to its sugar content, the juice has been used for ethanol production, using Clavispora lusitaniae, isolated from the juice itself, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae [89]. After fermentative processes of 48 h, the ethanol production was 10.68 g/L and 5.26 g/L, respectively.

The extraction of natural compounds with biopesticide activity is an alternative for the fique juice application. These compounds can be included in the control regimes for phytopathogenic species such as Phytopthora infestans, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Hemileia vastatrix, and insect pests such as Pieris sp., Plutella xylostella, Brevicoryne brassicae and Myzus persicae [90,91,92,93].

On the other hand, the juice has been evaluated in the removal of solids that provide turbidity and color to the partially purified leachate from a sanitary landfill [21]. Average improvements of 15% in turbidity removal and 9% in COD were obtained, using combinations of 3000 mg/L of ferric chloride hexahydrate as a coagulant, and 40 mg/L of fique leaf extract, as an adjuvant.

In the same way, Lozano-Rivas et al. extracted amphiphilic glycosides, used as a flocculation aid in the removal of the contaminants in effluents from the textile industry. It could reduce additional color by 31% and effluent turbidity by 17% [22]. For its part, research carried out by Jaramillo showed that the use of fique juice as an additive in the mixture of Portland cement mortars and concrete increases plasticity and reduces the water content on the mixture by up to 25%. At the same time, the researcher found the resistance to attack by sulfates and carbonates is improved due to the closed porosity that is formed [88].

6. Perspectives and Green Chemistry

The green chemistry approach is oriented to the use of a set of principles that aim to reduce or eliminate the environmental impact of hazardous substances used in the manufacture, industry, and application of chemical products. Anastas and Warner [94] postulated the 12 principles of green chemistry, which present options that can be implemented at the macro and micro levels: Prevention, Atom economy, Chemical synthesis for less hazardous, Designing safer chemicals, Safer solvents, Design for energy efficiency, Use of renewable raw materials, Reduce derivatives, Catalysis, Biodegradation, Real-time analysis for contamination prevention, and Accident prevention.

Green chemistry has been positioning itself and linking with different fields of knowledge. This approach contributes to the mitigation of the different actions of human beings, especially at the industrial level. It is a necessity in a society that increasingly complexes its knowledge and innovations in science and technology and where the industrialization practices and the social uses of chemical knowledge linked to excessive consumerism are some of the main causes of the serious impacts that are generated daily about the environment [95].

Therefore, the trend towards green chemistry is driven by the research and innovation efforts that are being carried out jointly by technology centers, industry, and universities, and, in some cases, accompanied by market policies that favor the revitalization of the use of natural fibers. Progress is being made toward a “green economy” based on energy efficiency, industrial processes that reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and recyclable materials that reduce waste to a minimum [96].

The use of fique by-products contributes to some principles of green chemistry, such as preventing waste, since they are reused and converted into raw materials for new applications and the use of renewable raw materials in a technically and economically practical way. Also, the fique plant is a “profitable” plant since families live from its production. The offer is stable over time and does not compete with the food industry. In its crops, the processes are done mechanically, no solvents are used, and the amount of waste generated is high.

Similarly, manage innovation and the transfer of knowledge and technology to increase competitiveness for the department; strengthen the capabilities and skills of companies and institutions to identify, articulate, and transform national and international market opportunities into innovation projects that increase the competitiveness of companies in the Department of Antioquia. Promotion of the culture of business innovation in the areas prioritized in science, technology and innovation for the department, promote the culture of innovation, oriented to the development of products, processes, and services that meet the needs of the market. Generation of spaces for the social appropriation of knowledge to instill culture and community participation in science, technology and innovation [97].

According to the Comprehensive Plan for Agricultural and Rural Development with a Territorial Approach, the Department of Antioquia will contribute to environmental and risk management, the conservation of water resources and strategic ecosystems, and education for environmental sustainability. For this, opportunities, strengths, weaknesses, and threats were prioritized to be resolved through their actions: Low adoption of adequate solid waste management and inadequate solid waste management [98].

The production of cellulose from Fique bagasse will be able to replace products made with plastics in the long term. This market represented imports for Antioquia in 2019 of 298,295 USD [99]. It shows a potential demand for polymeric materials that could be partially replaced by different products derived from cellulose, especially those that are called single-use plastics. According to the bill, the manufacture, import, sale, and distribution of single-use plastics are prohibited in the national territory from 2030. Other provisions are issued that allow their substitution and closure of cycles to control the contamination and protect the environment and the health of living beings [100].

Molded pulp is employed as a green bet by some industries with applications in many fields. With its high strength, durability, and low cost, this material has the potential to replace the use of plastic in various applications [101]. Although molded pulp products were created in 1903 by Martin L. Keyes, they were not industrially developed and produced until the late 1980s due to the environmental impact that plastic packaging was causing and the increase in packaging consumption worldwide. Natural fibers are an alternative to solve environmental problems and the deficiency in the packaging market. It is due to its easy availability, absence of health risks, toughness, thermal stability, and relevant mechanical properties such as compression, impact resistance, the possibility of degradation, and the ease of customization [102]. Molded pulp is currently used in packaging for food, beverages, chemical products, electrical appliances, electrical products, furniture, ceramics, and hospital products; for goods transport; or as disposable items [103]. Likewise, the importation in Antioquia for processed foods was 10,972 USD [99].

The price of pulp varies from 5 ¢/kg to 45 ¢/kg. This depends on several factors, such as the size of the fiber, the raw material quality, and displacement and location. With the development of different science and technology projects, fique farmers in Colombia could increase their income for each kg of fique fiber on average by between 10 and 103%. Therefore, it represents an opportunity for innovation for productivity, competitiveness, and social development of the Department of Antioquia [97].

7. Technology Transfer

With the industrial potential of fique grown in Colombia and the panorama of technological developments previously presented, it is relevant to evaluate which of these developments stand out for their potential for technology transfer.

The selection of suitable technology, the identification of barriers and drivers, and the prioritization of a suitable supplier are critical stages for the development of successful technology transfer processes [104,105], and that is why a set of separate prioritization matrices are presented in three categories of fique utilization: fiber, bagasse, and juice.

The technologies for fique applications found in literature were evaluated using a multi-criteria decision-making matrix (MCDM). To conduct the evaluation, four criteria were used: Technology Readiness Level or TRL (C1), Technologies or similar products on the market (C2), Benefits and added value (C3), and Application sectors (C4).

Technological Readiness Level (TRL) is an international tool to measure the maturity level of a technology and define the stages in which a Research and Development project is found, it consists of nine levels [106]. The criterion C1 was evaluated using a 1 to 9 scale according to the TRL defined for each technology for fique application.

The criteria C2, C3, and C4 were evaluated using a Likert scale in three levels (1, 3, 5), as presented in

Table 10. Definition of the Likert scale used to evaluate the criteria C2, C3, and C4 for each technology for fique application.

Criteria	Likert Scale
	1	3	5
Technologies or similar products on the market (C2)	Numerous technologies on the market	Moderate technologies on the market	There is no evidence of these technologies on the market
Benefits and added value (C3)	Does not replace already known technologies	Moderate technology substitution potential	Replaces already known technologies
Application sectors (C4)	1 applicable market sector	2 applicable market sectors	3 or more applicable market sectors

.

The weights of each criteria in the MCMD was estimated using the eigenvector technique as described by [107]. The scoring data for each criteria was collected and then compared in pairs to perform the Pearson distance correlation formularized as

$$r\left(x,y\right)=\frac{{{\displaystyle \sum }}_{i=1}^n\left(x_i-\overline{x}\right)\left(y_i-\overline{y}\right)}{\sqrt{{{\displaystyle \sum }}_{i=1}^n{\left(x_i-\overline{x}\right)}^2}\sqrt{{{\displaystyle \sum }}_{i=1}^n{\left(y_i-\overline{y}\right)}^2}}$$

(1)

where $x$ and $y$ represents the criteria scores, $\overline{x}$ and $\overline{y}$ are the score means.

The collection of distance correlations derived a symmetric square matrix, $R$, of dimensions 4 × 4. The eigenvectors were calculated using

$$\left(R-\lambda I\right)\cdot W=0$$

(2)

where $\lambda$ are the eigenvalues of $R$, $I$ the is the identity matrix of dimensions 4 × 4, and $W$ is a matrix composed of the eigenvectors of $R$. The absolute values of the eigenvectors corresponding to the maximum eigenvalue λ_max of the matrix $R$ are the recommended weights of each criteria.

Substituting the quantitative judgments of criteria C1 to C4 into MS Excel to perform the Pearson distance correlation operation, we obtained a proximity matrix as below

$$R_{4\times 4}=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}1& 0.136& 0.129& 0.340\\ 0.136& 1& 0.391& -0.024\\ 0.129& 0.391& 1& 0.079\\ 0.340& -0.024& 0.079& 1\end{array}\right]$$

(3)

Taking advantage of the eigenvalue algorithms, we found a set of eigenvalues: 0.569, 0.681, 1.215, and 1.535. The eigenvectors corresponding to the maximum eigenvalue λ_max = 1.535 were 0.512, 0.523, 0.562, and 0.3847. Further normalizing these eigenvectors, the weights of the criteria C1 to C4 were determined as follows:

$$W={\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0.259& 0.264& 0.284& 0.194\end{array}\right]}^T$$

The complete multi-criteria decision-making matrix for fique fiber, bagasse and juice are shown in

Table 11. Multi-criteria decision-making matrix for fique fiber applications found in literature. C1: Technology Readiness Level (TRL), C2: Technology or similar products on the market, C3: Benefits and added value, C4: Application sectors.

Aplication	Location	Ref.	C1	C2	C3	C4	Score
Synthesis of gold nanoparticles on the surface of natural fique fibers, materials for the textile and packaging industry, and fillers for fiber-reinforced composites.	Santander, Colombia	[68]	5	5	1	5	3.87
Development of materials with an elastic frame behavior used for thermal insulation, acoustic impact reduction, and acoustic absorption above 1000 Hz.	Antioquia, Colombia	[52]	5	3	3	1	3.13
Fique as a sustainable material and thermal insulation for buildings.	Santander, Colombia	[108]	3	3	5	1	3.18
Production of cellulose nanofibrils extracted from fique fibers that act as viscosity modifying agents in fresh cement pastes and as microcracking preventive agents in cement pastes exposed to high temperatures.	Antioquia, Colombia	[79]	5	5	5	1	4.22
Absorbent hydrogel (AHR3) to improve water retention capacity and irrigation frequency reduction by up to 90%. Improved soil compaction and reduced fertilizer loss.	Valle del Cauca, Colombia	[7]	6	3	5	1	3.95
Manufacture of chairs for students in composite reinforced with five layers of fique fiber.	Santander, Colombia	[54]	7	5	1	1	3.61
Development of a semi-rigid bioplastic material based on cassava flour with mechanical, thermal, and water adsorption properties suitable for its application as food packaging.	Valle del Cauca, Colombia	[109]	7	1	1	1	2.55
Obtaining viscose rayon from fique with potential application in the Colombian textile sector	Antioquia, Colombia	[16]	4	5	3	1	3.40
Potential of meshes woven in fique fibers (furcraea) for soil protection and erosion control on slopes	Cundinamarca, Colombia	[110]	5	5	5	1	4.22
Activated carbon obtained from fique, through the chemical activation technique, capable of removing RB46 dye from water by 95% under concentrations of 100ppm.	Cundinamarca, Colombia	[111]	3	3	1	1	2.04
Development of an ethnic concept and added value to the national textile with an experimentation with Colombian sustainable textile fibers.	Cundinamarca, Colombia	[112]	3	1	1	1	1.52
Use of fique fiber waste, as a natural fiber par excellence added to fine soils in order to improve its mechanical properties.	Cundinamarca, Colombia	[113]	3	1	1	1	1.52
Fique fiber softening treatment, suitable for dyeing and finishing processes, since it is a substrate for reactive dyes, softeners and textile auxiliaries applied in the industry.	Antioquia, Colombia	[114]	4	1	1	3	2.16
Smoothing process for the manufacture of bags, which allows handling and is comfortable in contact with the user.	Tungurahua, Ecuador	[115]	4	1	1	1	1.78
Fique fibers as reinforcement of polymeric matrices, in particular polyethylene, using surface modifications from chemical treatments.	Valle del Cauca, Colombia	[116]	5	1	5	1	3.17
Fique as a component in structural masonry glue to obtain greater resistance and durability in constructions.	Cundinamarca, Colombia	[117]	5	5	5	1	4.22
Obtaining a fine, soft and flexible fiber from chemical, enzymatic and softening methods, for future use in the production of threads and textile bases for the diversification of its applications in clothing such as denim.	Antioquia, Colombia	[118]	5	3	3	1	3.13
Fique fiber modified with enzymes to retain RB5 dye by adsorption and convert it into a promising biosorbent for the removal of azo dyes, with additional applications in textile wastewater treatment.	Valencia, España	[74]	4	3	5	1	3.44
Fabric based on fique fibers from the leaves of the Furcraea andina as reinforcement for polymeric compounds used in a multilayer armor system (MAS).	Brasil	[63]	3	5	5	1	3.71
Fique fibers as reinforcement of a Charpy impact epoxy resin material. The potential of compounds made with this type of reinforcement is wide and with particular applications in the automotive industry in which reliability, weight, cost reduction, and material sources.	Antioquia, Colombia; Misuri, Estados Unidos; Rio de Janeiro, Brasil	[6]	5	1	5	5	3.94
Extraction of cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) from delignified fique tow. The results showed that their properties make them suitable materials for applications such as surfactant additives for the oil industry, raw materials to synthesize hydrophobic compounds or production of new nano and microfibers in spinning processes, among others.	Santander, Colombia	[25]	6	3	3	5	4.16
Coconut fiber and fique emerge as an alternative, improving the sustainability of the construction sector with acoustic absorption panels.	Antioquia, Colombia; Madrid, España	[4]	3	3	3	1	2.61
Development of a totally bio-based compound using a natural resin from the Elaeagia Pastoensis Mora plant, known as Mopa-Mopa reinforced with fique fibers.	Valle del Cauca, Colombia	[56]	6	5	5	5	5.26
Separation of cellulose from fique gravel using fermented broth of different ligninolytic fungi, this process is useful for the exploitation of cellulose as raw material or the development of materials based on natural cellulose.	Antioquia, Colombia	[119]	4	5	5	3	4.35

,

Table 12. Multi-criteria decision-making matrix for fique bagasse applications found in literature. C1: Technology Readiness Level (TRL), C2: Technology or similar products on the market, C3: Benefits and added value, C4: Application sectors.

Aplication	Location	Ref.	C1	C2	C3	C4	Score
Gas as a potential source of heat or as fuel for energy generation in internal combustion engines and micro turbines.	Huila, Colombia	[83]	4	3	5	3	3.83
Agglomerate from bagasse, using the green liquor from fique to mix it with a twin resin and obtain the binder with lower proportions of formaldehyde with which the fique residue was compacted.	Cauca, Colombia	[82]	5	1	3	3	2.99
Extraction and incorporation of fique bagasse microparticles in a foamed material obtained from cassava starch	Valle del Cauca, Colombia	[84]	4	5	5	3	4.35
Vegetal charcoal from fique bagasse for removal of caffeine and diclofenac from aqueous solution. Alternative material to capture contaminants from water.	Cundinamarca, Colombia	[13]	3	5	5	1	3.71
Raw bagasse, washed and thermoactivated (RFB, WFB and ACFB), has the potential to be used in the adsorption of polychlorinated pesticides such as chlorothalonil.	Antioquia, Colombia	[80]	5	5	5	1	4.22
Production of biogas from bagasse on a laboratory scale through the anaerobic digestion process using a mixture of ruminal fluid and pig manure sludge as inoculum. Bagasse is a potential residual source of renewable energy.	Santander, Colombia	[81]	6	3	5	1	3.95
Ethanol production from fique bagasse using Rhizopus stolonifer by solid-state fermentation, with a fermentation time of 38 days at room temperature in a rotary reactor.	Antioquia, Colombia	[120]	5	1	3	5	3.38

and

Table 13. Multi-criteria decision-making matrix for fique juice applications found in literature. C1: Technology Readiness Level (TRL), C2: Technology or similar products on the market, C3: Benefits and added value, C4: Application sectors.

Aplication	Location	Ref.	C1	C2	C3	C4	Score
Biofungicide to prevent gout (Phytophthora infestans) in potato crops.	Nariño, Colombia	[91]	4	1	1	1	1.78
Pest controller in cabbage cultivation to improve color and resistance.	Cauca, Colombia	[90]	3	1	1	1	1.52
Biocides produced with Furcraea gigantea Vent. to control the phytopathogen Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (In vitro).	Nariño, Colombia	[92]	2	1	1	1	1.26
Biocidal capacity of fermented fique juice to control the growth and development of rust in coffee.	Nariño, Colombia	[121]	3	1	1	1	1.52
Fique juice as an air occluder as an interferent in the capillary network to reduce permeability and the entry of aggressive agents into concrete and mortar.	Antioquia, Colombia	[88]	3	5	1	1	2.57
Fique juice as an air-occluding additive to reduce exudation and density in the fresh state.	Antioquia, Colombia	[122]	5	3	3	1	3.13
Bioethanol production from fique juice using Clavispora lusitaniae and Saccharomyces cerevisiae.	Antioquia, Colombia	[89]	6	5	3	1	3.92
Fique juice as an organic additive incorporated into concrete to increase its resistance over time.	San Martín, Perú	[123]	3	3	5	1	3.18
Steroid synthesis using chemical and biological transformation methods from p-sitosterol, sapogenins, and saponins present in fique juice.	Antioquia, Colombia	[124]	3	5	1	1	2.57
Ethanol production using fique juice fermented with Candida lusitaniae, an alternative using other substrates that do not compete with the food industry.	Antioquia, Colombia	[125]	6	5	3	5	4.69
Biotransformation of fique juice for the industrial production of natural steroids or analogs under optimal operating conditions and purification of the final product.	Antioquia, Colombia	[126]	5	5	1	1	3.09
Technology for the separation of fique juice as a raw material for industry: ethanol production, biopesticides.	Antioquia, Colombia	[127]	6	1	1	3	2.68
Use of the substances extracted from fique juice as a coagulation aid for improving the physicochemical treatment of industrial wastewater.	La Rábida, España	[128]	4	5	5	1	3.97

.

In conclusion, the multi-criteria decision-making matrix reveals that in the case of fique fiber, the technologies to obtain bio-based materials reinforced with fique fibers, the development of nanofibrils applied to the construction sector stand out for having a high transfer profile and are emerging as promising for the market.

In the applications with fique bagasse, it was found that the technologies with a higher transfer profile include the development of natural foams modified with fique microparticles and the development of environmental solutions for the adsorption of polychlorinated pesticides such as chlorothalonil.

Finally, it found that technology for ethanol bioproduction using fique juice that does not compete with the food industry presents favorable conditions for its transfer to the market by virtue of its level of development and the possibilities it has in sectors such as energy.

With all this, the great potential of the fique plant grown in Colombia is demonstrated as a source of sustainable opportunities to develop different industrial sectors in local and international markets.