Assessing Cycling Accessibility in Urban Areas through the Implementation of a New Cycling Scheme

Abstract

Cycling’s integration into the intricate facets of urban design, together with walking and public transportation, offers an effective solution to the mobility issues plaguing urban spaces, and is critical to the sustainability of modern cities. In this context, in this research urban cyclists’ needs and preferences are analyzed through questionnaires, and bicycle accessibility to urban areas is assessed using multicriteria analysis. The public’s familiarity with the integration of novel mobility solutions (e.g., e-bicycles) that support accessibility and inclusiveness is tested and analyzed by recording cyclists trajectories on bicycle routes. The European hub of Patras was selected as the case study for a pilot scheme in this analysis. Similar to many medium-sized European cities, several mobility obstacles, including urban topography, hinder bicycle accessibility in the city, especially between the Modern and Old City areas. The research findings indicate that, addressing these obstacles, electric bicycles can substantially increase bicycle accessibility in the city center. The public usage of electric bicycles is encouraged in the pilot study, and the results indicate that it can increase accessibility to urban areas while reducing restrictions related to age, physical condition, and disabilities. Providing citizens access to e-bicycles can increase the number of daily bicycle users, leading to positive impact in urban cohesion, resilience, and sustainability.

1. Introduction

The ecological footprint of transport constitutes a substantial share of the total ecological footprint of human activity on the planet [1,2]. The prevalence of the private car as a dominant transport mode in modern cities results in traffic saturation, increased energy consumption, and increased emissions, leading to the pollution of the environment and the degradation of transportation and other urban services [3,4]. Thus, the need to ensure the sustainability of urban mobility is of increasing importance.

Reducing road vehicle emissions in urban areas represents a key challenge for Europe. The goal of adopting sustainable transport habits within a city has been a priority of policymaking, at a European, national, regional, and local level [4,5]. The responsible authorities have identified the current need to improve city transport by developing transport services that offer more efficient and sustainable mobility solutions which are tailored to users’ needs.

In this framework, cycling has steadily gained ground as a commuting alternative to the car. The growing interest in cycling is directly linked to its benefits in the modern city. Apart from walking, the bicycle is the only conventional mode of transport that does not normally impact the environment, has low infrastructure needs, and does not consume energy directly, while improving the physical condition of the user [5,6]. At the same time, electric mobility (e-mobility), including e-bicycles, applied to both private and public transport is one of the most promising solutions for reducing air pollution in densely populated areas, as well as expanding accessibility and inclusiveness [7,8].

European municipalities are investing in increasing the share of bicycles and e-bicycles, aiming to exploit macroscopic advantages for all citizens through the accessibility of more public space, the improvement of air quality and citizens’ health, and the provision of green mobility modes for all, including elderly and disabled citizens [8,9]. The initiatives of European cities in favor of wider use of the bicycle include local actions in Greek cities, such as Larissa, Trikkala, Patras, Alexandroupolis, Ptolemais, and Kranidi, and improve bicycle infrastructure and facilities, as well as traffic and mobility management to support safe and comfortable cycling [10,11].

Cyclists’ perceptions and requirements play an important role in increasing the share of bicycles in local communities, yet most programs have focused on road and bicycle infrastructure design, with less consideration of the changing user needs and preferences [12]. Therefore, this research aims to identify the added value of the impact of implementing e-bicycles in the European transportation hub of the city of Patras. Cyclists’ responses were analyzed to identify current users’ mobility needs and requirements, and evaluate urban accessibility by bicycle. In addition, the research addresses the dynamics of the public’s familiarity with novel mobility options that support the accessibility and inclusion of the citizenry. Particular focus is placed on the new options offered by e-bicycles, which are assessed through the implementation of a pilot action, including their testing and evaluation by citizens, with a view to enhancing local sustainability and strengthening transferability potential to similar urban areas.

2. Research Background

The integration of cycling, walking, and public transport offers an effective solution for addressing the increasing challenges of urban mobility planning and enhancing its sustainability [13]. The bicycle has gained traction as a sustainable commuting alternative, with one billion cyclists worldwide; cycling is the only mode of transport that does not normally cause a direct environmental nuisance, requires minimal parking space, does not directly consume energy, and can improve the physical condition of the user [14].

Key in achieving higher local modal share are cyclists’ perceptions, but most actions have focused on road design and bicycle infrastructure design, without adequately considering the changing user preferences [14]. In particular, research has focused on exploring the preferences of cyclists in conventional bicycle infrastructure by type, including the number of traffic lanes and type of bicycle parking. Additional findings indicate that users choose their desired route based on comfort and safety [15]. Research has also investigated the effect of parking (type and width of infrastructure), type of bicycle crossing, and speed limits in cities [16].

Ιnfrastructure agents and increasing bicycle traffic are strong determinants of the city’s encouragement of cycling, as perceived by bicycle users. While primary roads currently feature lower Bikeability Index scores owing to elevated road accident rates, cyclists often show a preference for using them [17]. However, the existence of a bicycle network is a key agent in encouraging cycling [18,19,20], and its importance varies with the bicycle-driving experience in the network [19,21]. Furthermore, the network must be designed with a universal connectivity to other networks and transport modes [22,23]. In order to meet the quality standards set for cycle paths, it is necessary to implement specific bicycle infrastructure measures for controlling and managing bicycle traffic, such as optimizing traffic signals for cyclists or extending the time allowed for cyclists to pass through certain areas [24].

The coexistence of bicycle infrastructure and cycling safety, which enhances bicycle traffic, is crucial considering that drivers who are more familiar with bicycle boxes tend to stop farther away from them, while those less familiar with them stop in the box; additionally, driver speed and lane positioning near bicycle lanes are significantly influenced by the combination of familiarity with bicycle lanes and frequency of bicycling, but not by either factor individually [25].

Additional determining infrastructure factors defining bicycle traffic are bicycle sharing systems, parking spaces, and locks, as well as parking lot amenities such as toilets [18,23]. Empirical results suggest that the availability of a bikeshare reduces car traffic congestion upwards of 4% within a neighborhood enhancing cycling [26]. For example, Puyol and Baeza focused on designing a bicycle sharing system that encourages responsible cycling and adherence to traffic regulations through rental cost reductions. The integration of sensors within bicycles enables the transmission of journey data via the Internet of Things (IoT) and a Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) [27]. These data facilitate fleet management, optimizing service delivery by identifying areas with high demand. Simulation results underscore the potential for enhanced urban mobility and reduced carbon emissions resulting from technological implementation. Recent research [28] addressed the challenge of efficiently relocating bicycles within bicycle-sharing systems, introducing a systematic relocation framework that incorporates demand forecasting and relocation optimization, aiming to enhance the effectiveness of bicycle-sharing system operations. In this framework, Lattis is a company that offers a smart bicycle-sharing system with bicycles equipped with technology such as GPS tracking, integrated locks, and mobile app compatibility. Users can locate, rent, and unlock these bicycles using a smartphone app, making it a convenient and eco-friendly transportation option in urban areas [29].

Regarding the social aspect of cycling, subjective factors are crucial as many consider bicycle use to be a dangerous activity in certain environments and an infeasible activity for elderly and disabled people [30,31]. Moreover, it is well-noted that female-identifying cyclists prioritize safety and exhibit a significant gender-based difference in concerns about harassment, regardless of bicycle infrastructure presence (Graystone et al., 2022 [32]. Recent literature has explored the potential benefits from cycling innovation, such as e-bicycles. E-bicycles are inherently faster, potentially more navigable in hilly areas, and more accessible to cycling-averse users; further, they can act to improve accessibility to challenging locations [33,34,35]. In particular, e-bicycles have a promising potential as an alternative mode of transportation and can lead to unique usage patterns and travel behavior [36]. Considering the digital transformation of cities, emphasis is placed on the necessary steps for integrating e-bicycles in a smart city. The difficulties that cities have when formulating policies like regulations or strategies for integrating the appropriate infrastructure must be prioritized. In addition, a roadmap with all the actions for their integration in smart urban areas combined with raising awareness campaigns are critical for the successful implementation of cycling innovation [37]. However, a critical piece of the story is yet to be explored: the link between the e-bicycle and its impact on urban accessibility in mixed traffic, i.e., its effective integration in the presence of conventional bicycles and multimodal transport.

This research has been developed within the scope of the TRIBUTE project, as part of the INTERREG ADRION Programme 2014–2020, which aims to enhance the capacity for integrated transport and mobility services and multimodality in the Adriatic-Ionian area. The main objective of the research is to identify the extent to which e-bicycles can enhance urban accessibility based on the cyclists’ preferences and willingness to adopt cycling innovative tools. The research has selected the European hub of Patras as the case study area in Greece. Patras is a medium-sized city with access challenges to overcome, typical of many European cities, such as its geographical characteristics and the topographical hurdles, especially in seeking to increase connectedness between the Modern and Old City. At the same time, Patras is moving towards smart urban mobility through digital transformation [38,39]. Considering the above, Patras can be a role model for numerous urban areas across Europe, and research methodology and its mobility findings can be transferred to other urban areas with similar characteristics.

3. Materials and Methods

For identifying the accessibility by bicycle, both within the existing situation in the urban area and in light of technological advances in urban mobility, the methodology included the development of a questionnaire, and of a multicriteria analysis framework. The survey was carried out online, and the developed questionnaire was addressed to Patras’ citizens. The questions of the questionnaire sought to identify the citizens’ needs that are related to using the bicycle in the city center and on their daily trips. They were primarily related to the reasons that people choose to use a bicycle, their preferred cycling routes, safety and accessibility issues, as well as their stated preferences regarding the main characteristics of conventional bicycles and of e-bicycles.

The multicriteria analysis was carried out for supporting the assessment of the roads (links) of the city center in terms of bicycle accessibility. The results can be helpful for selecting the best variant (link) from a set of variants, each carrying its own rating value within the defined rating structure. The criteria, weights, and rating value structure for the analysis were co-developed by the mobility experts in the research team, the traffic experts of the city transportation department, and the local stakeholders who are engaged in the Tribute Living Laboratory (LL) of the City of Patras, a component of the open innovation process of the Tribute project in the municipality. The meetings of the Living Laboratory took place in the spring of 2023 and were based on stakeholders’ participatory and active involvement.

Five thematic groups for the criteria were defined, i.e., horizontal geometric design, vertical geometric design, pavement design, vehicle use, and bicycle use, and these are summarized in

Table 1. Bicycle accessibility thematic groups and criteria.

Thematic Group	Assessment Criterion
Horizontal geometric design	Road (link) width Link type (e.g., 2-lane street) Horizontal curve
Vertical geometric design	Vertical curve Vertical slope (level change) Sight distance
Pavement design	Road pavement type Road pavement quality Road pavement markings
Vehicle use	On-street parking Double parking Number of lanes Traffic flow
Bicycle use	Bicycle signage Bicycle lane Bicycle traffic flow

together with the most relevant assessment criteria, from the initial set of all criteria, which were considered for each thematic group. From the survey results of the Living Laboratory, the identified top criteria were the road width, vertical level change along the bicycle path, road pavement condition, existence of double-parked cars, and existence of a bicycle lane. The selected criteria and rating value structure over the criteria are summarized in

Table 2. Bicycle accessibility assessment criteria.

Assessment Criterion	Rating Value Structure	Weight	Code
Bicycle lane	1 = exists	0.2	a
	0 = does not exist
Road width	1 = wide: room for vehicle and bicycle running in parallel	0.2	b
	0 = narrow: no room for a bicycle
Double parking	1 = no double parked cars	0.2	c
	0 = double parked cars
Vertical level change	1 = does not exist	0.2	d
	0 = exists
Road pavement condition	1 = good	0.2	e
	0 = bad (e.g., puddles, humps)

.

The total rating Y of bicycle accessibility of any city link that can belong to a bicycle path is estimated based on the above criteria by specification (1) that is linear in the parameters while the values of the weights of the parameters are initially estimated from a uniform distribution.

Y = 0.2 × a + 0.2 × b + 0.2 × c + 0.2 × d + 0.2 × e

(1)

where a = bicycle lane, b = road width, c = double parking, d = vertical level change, and e = road pavement condition.

The rating can be used to assign a grade to the total quality of each link (variant) within the allowed number of link options, i.e., within the designated city center network in which driving a bicycle is allowed. Then, based on the resulting value of rating Y, given a set of rating and weight values for the criteria set S, with S ≡ {a, b, c, d, e} in this application, the city links that can belong to bicycle paths were placed into a k-level classification framework using the k = 3 classes adopted in the Patras Living Laboratory and threshold values determined by user equilibrium, and they are presented in

Table 3. Level of bicycle accessibility: rating Y.

Level of Bicycle Accessibility	Rating Y
A—Accessible	0.7–1.0
B—Moderately accessible	0.4–0.6
C—Slightly accessible	0.0–0.3

.

To verify these results, alternative classification frameworks could be considered. For instance, the experienced speed is used in traffic to classify links by the resulting Level of Service (LoS), with rating from A (free flow) to F (forced breakdown congestion); further, users’ unfairness, a measure for the congestion experienced by a user could be evaluated on the whole user’s path, and is defined as the relative difference between experienced travel time and free-flow travel time [40]. Nevertheless, the team of experts and stakeholders of the Tribute Living Laboratory felt that the adopted framework would sufficiently support the current requirements of the city for the multicriteria classification and assessment of the roads (links) of the city center in terms of bicycle accessibility.

Finally, the testing phase of the Living Laboratory activities involved the pilot use of e-bicycles in the city of Patras. During the pilot action, e-bicycle rental enterprises participated to provided citizens with e-bicycles for free. The main objective of the pilot use of e-bicycles was to record citizens’ route choices and to incorporate the findings in the multicriteria assessment of bicycle accessibility in Patras. In addition, the potential barriers to cycling, such as age, physical status, disability, built environment, and infrastructure inefficiencies, were placed under investigation. E-bicycle riding data were collected through mobile GPS applications, covering the entire designated city area. Citizens participating in the pilot action were free to ride for as long as they wanted, and visit the area they preferred on the designated road network within a defined urban boundary.

For the second phase of evaluation, a new criterion was decided through Patras Living Laboratory to be added in the multicriteria assessment analysis. In particular, the accessibility by e-bicycle has been added as criterion “f.” Based on the tracking results, roads that have been accessed by citizens in the testing phase of e-bicycles are rated with 1, while the rest of the roads are rated with 0. The new criteria and new rating value structure over the criteria, as developed though the Living Laboratory, are summarized in

Table 4. E-bicycle accessibility assessment criteria.

Assessment Criterion	Rating Value Structure	Weight	Code
Bicycle lane	1 = exists	0.1	a
	0 = does not exist
Road width	1 = wide: room for vehicle and bicycle running in parallel	0.2	b
	0 = narrow: no room for a bicycle
Double parking	1 = no double parked cars	0.2	c
	0 = double parked cars
Vertical level change	1 = does not exist	0.2	d
	0 = exists
Road pavement condition	1 = good	0.1	e
	0 = bad (e.g., puddles, humps)
E-bicycle accessibility	1 = accessed by e-bicycle 0 = no access	0.2	f

.

The relationship providing the new rating Y’ is described in specification (2).

Y’ = 0.1 × a + 0.2 × b + 0.2 × c + 0.2 × d + 0.1 × e +0.2 × f

(2)

where a = bicycle lane, b = road width, c = double parking, d = vertical level change, e = road pavement condition and f = e-bicycle accessibility.

The rating Y’ is based on the augmented set of criteria in specification (2), and is linear in the parameters, while the updated values of the weights of the parameters are estimated based on users’ feedback on their decision to use a bicycle and their willingness to adopt e-cycling in their daily trips.

Following the above methodology, the results from the analysis could support the evaluation of the feasibility and accessibility of cycling using bicycles and e-bicycles as a sustainable mode of urban transport, with particular focus on city center mobility and assessing the overall impact of e-bicycles on cycling accessibility of the city center.

4. Results

This section presents the findings from the analysis of the questionnaire responses, the multicriteria analysis, and the pilot activities, contributing to a deeper understanding of the extent to which the level of accessibility could be enhanced through the use of electric bicycles.

In particular, the major factors that affect citizens’ choice to use their bicycle were identified in the questionnaire survey to Patras citizens, and the most important of them, as indicated by the questionnaire responses, are illustrated in Figure 1.

From the responses, safety (highly related to the existence of cycling paths) and the geographical/topographical characteristics of the route are the strongest determinants of bicycle choice. It could be argued that urban areas can be considered more accessible by conventional bicycle if they feature low intra-area altitude differences and are served by bicycle paths. From the findings, weather conditions, travel comfort, and travel cost are also strong determinants of citizens’ choice, indicating that there is potential for improving the bicycle modal share through cycling innovations, such as electric bicycles.

Based on the questionnaire results, the key findings indicate that citizens opt to visit areas of the city that are more accessible by bicycle, such as the South Park and the Faros Lighthouse area, as illustrated in Figure 2. These areas are popular owing to the presence of bicycle infrastructure and the favorable topography of the seaside area, which allows moving on one level without the need to negotiate uphill roads. Less popular areas are Dassyllio and Patras Castle, as they lack cycling infrastructure and are located in the uphill Old City.

From the responses to the same questions, but with the e-bicycle replacing the conventional bicycle, South Park remains a popular destination combined with the Plage Beach, Dassyllio, and Patras Castle, as illustrated in Figure 3. Plage beach is a seaside open space situated 5 km from the city center, which citizens visit by car. In addition, both Dassyllio and Patras Castle are favored public spaces, located in the Old Town and accessible mainly by car.

Overall, the findings reveal that users consider the e-bicycle an innovative tool that can support and enhance the accessibility of urban areas and open spaces that are difficult to approach using a conventional bicycle because of distance and level change.

The multicriteria analysis was carried out through observations on the site of the city center. Based on the on-site findings and formula (1), the cycling accessibility for the critical road links of the city center has been assessed regarding the current experience with the conventional bicycle, and the results are presented in

Table 5. Level of conventional bicycle accessibility and rating Y: main road links, city center.

Street Name	Rating Y	Classification
Germanou	0.2	Slightly accessible
Korinthou	0.2	Slightly accessible
St. Andrew	0.2	Slightly accessible
Aratou	0.4	Moderately accessible
Ermou	0.4	Moderately accessible
Maizonos	0.4	Moderately accessible
St. Nikolaou str.	0.4	Moderately accessible
Gounari	0.6	Moderately accessible
Kanakari	0.6	Moderately accessible
Karolou	0.6	Moderately accessible
Kolokotroni	0.6	Moderately accessible
Pantokratoros	0.6	Moderately accessible
Riga Feraiou street	0.6	Moderately accessible
St. Nikolaou Pedestrian str.	0.6	Moderately accessible
Gerokostopoulou Pedestrian str.	0.8	Accessible
Othonos Amalias Avenue	0.8	Accessible
Pantanassis Pedestrian str.	0.8	Accessible
Riga Feraiou Pedestrian str.	0.8	Accessible

. In addition, the overall results for the city center are illustrated on the map of Figure 4.

From the assessment findings, the city center has the potential to be highly accessible by bicycle. However, the lack of an extended bicycle path network, excluding the seaside cycling path on Othon Amalia Avenue and the Riga Feraiou Pedestrian Street, as well as the absence of innovative cycling solutions for the citizens, is leading the majority of citizens to use their private car on a daily basis.

From the findings, the extensive use of vehicles creates critical parking issues, which are primarily caused by extensive on-street double parking on the main arterials of the city center, e.g., Korinthou Street, Germanou Street, and St. Andrew Street. As a result, bicycle accessibility is limited, even in the Modern City area, which has no important topographical obstacles (e.g., uphill) and efficient road width. Regarding the areas of Old Town and Patras Castle, the potential for improving cycling accessibility in these suburban areas is noted because these areas can be characterized as a household district with low traffic. However, the high altitude of these areas reduces access by conventional bicycle users whose trips originate in the Modern City.

As part of the pilot for estimating the potential contribution by electric bicycles in enhancing cycling mobility and accessibility, electric bicycles were provided to citizens, and the trip routes they decided to follow were recorded by mobile GPS applications. The main findings from the pilot scheme and the route tracking are summarized in

Table 6. Results of trip data: e-bicycle use.

Cycling Trip Characteristic	Recorded Data
Average distance (km)	1.65
Average time (min)	8.62
Average speed (km/h)	12.53
Average highest speed (km/h)	25.03

and illustrated in Figure 5. The average distance that users covered in their trips was around 2 km, with an average speed of 12.53 km/h revealing that e-bicycles are appropriate for serving daily trips in the city center. In addition, the highest speed recorded was 25 km/h on average, indicating that e-bicycles support fast moving in the city center, overcoming topographical and fitness limitations set by conventional bicycles.

Based on the questionnaire results presented in Figure 3, e-bicycle use would be expected to extend bicycle accessibility to parts of the city in which the use of conventional bicycles is limited or is almost impossible, e.g., Dassyllio, contributing to increasing the city’s cohesion. From the tracking findings, it is noted that electric bicycles allow users to move easily and quickly in urban areas that may be less accessible by conventional bicycle, such as the Old Town, Patras Castle, and the uphill areas.

The majority of citizens, around 62%, decided to approach uphill routes; a substantial share of the cycling routes (28%) were recorded in the Old Town district, revealing citizens’ willingness to visit the area while considering the e-bicycle as a safe transport mode in visiting uphill areas. Moreover, 40% of the citizens used the seaside cycling paths, indicating the critical contribution of cycling infrastructure to enhancing bicycle accessibility for both conventional and electric bicycles.

The results from the assessment analysis generated with new rating Y’, based on e-bicycles’ route data and specification (2), for the main road links of the city center are summarized in

Table 7. Level of bicycle accessibility and rating Y’: main road links, city center.

Street Name	Rating Y	Classification	Rating Y’	New Classification	Rating Difference
Germanou	0.2	Slightly accessible	0.4	Moderately accessible	100%
Korinthou	0.2	Slightly accessible	0.4	Moderately accessible	100%
St. Andrew	0.2	Slightly accessible	0.4	Moderately accessible	100%
Aratou	0.4	Moderately accessible	0.5	Moderately accessible	25%
Ermou	0.4	Moderately accessible	0.5	Moderately accessible	25%
Maizonos	0.4	Moderately accessible	0.6	Moderately accessible	50%
St. Nikolaou str.	0.4	Moderately accessible	0.5	Moderately accessible	25%
Gounari	0.6	Moderately accessible	0.7	Accessible	16.67%
Kanakari	0.6	Moderately accessible	0.7	Accessible	16.67%
Karolou	0.6	Moderately accessible	0.7	Accessible	16.67%
Kolokotroni	0.6	Moderately accessible	0.7	Accessible	16.67%
Pantokratoros	0.6	Moderately accessible	0.7	Accessible	16.67%
Riga Feraiou street	0.6	Moderately accessible	0.7	Accessible	16.67%
St. Nikolaou Pedestrian str.	0.6	Moderately accessible	0.7	Accessible	16.67%
Gerokostopoulou Pedestrian str.	0.8	Accessible	0.8	Accessible	0.00%
Othonos Amalias Avenue	0.8	Accessible	0.9	Accessible	12.50%
Pantanassis Pedestrian str.	0.8	Accessible	0.8	Accessible	0.00%
Riga Feraiou Pedestrian str.	0.8	Accessible	0.9	Accessible	12.50%

, and are illustrated on the map of Figure 6.

The research findings indicate that cycling innovations, such as electric bicycles, can effectively improve the urban accessibility by bicycle in the majority of the areas of the city center. Following the implementation of innovation, main busy arterials, such as Korinthou Street, Maizonos Street, and Kanakari Street, were considered moderately to fully accessible, while the cycling accessibility of the Old Town district, e.g., Germanou Street and Pantokratoros Street, was significantly increased.

Through the comparison of accessibility ratings by conventional and e-bicycle, the positive impact of cycling innovation in accessibility is evident. The accessibility rating was increased in the vast majority of road links both in the Modern and Old Town, as shown in Table 7 and Figure 7. A minor decrease in accessibility rating was identified in few cases of short road or pedestrian links with insufficient road width and pavement quality to support e-bicycles use. Maps presented in Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 have been analyzed and developed using QGIS software version 3.32.3 [41].

The overall research results are indicative of the benefits that cycling innovations, such as electric bicycles, combined with appropriate cycling infrastructure, can provide for urban mobility and accessibility, leading to a positive impact in urban resilience and sustainability.

5. Discussion

The assessment analysis and research results lead to the main discussion on the replicability and transferability of the proposed methodological approach. Considering that the proposed structure amplifies the identification process of the main factors across levels of analysis that are common in most urban areas and city centers across Europe, and which can be adjusted according to urban requirements and feedback, the findings can work as a springboard for the implementation of cycling innovations in other urban spaces.

In addition, the proposed methods can be used in the pilot testing of cycling innovation, leading to the enhancement of cycling safety standards. The research findings can be used to generate and support new actions to ensure bicycle accessibility in a wide range of urban areas. They can support the assessment of the efficiency of active mobility and accessibility measures. The methods can also be used in identifying gaps in the operational activities of local stakeholders in European cities and in implementing their targeted strategies for sustainable urban mobility and urban resilience.

Through the case study results, the main impacts of implementing e-bicycles are that citizens cycled longer distances on an e-bicycle compared to a conventional bicycle, and they decided to visit uphill areas, enabling assisted biking and increasing urban accessibility. In addition, the implementation of e-bicycles provided evidence for their positive impact on extending inclusiveness to frail and vulnerable people that have seen their mobility and physical activity strongly reduced, and on enhancing bicycle safety, as e-bicycle users felt comfortable and confident to use roads with reduced cycling infrastructure.

Viewed from the broader perspective of infrastructure, e-bicycles have been comparatively neglected in terms of investment when contrasted with the allocations made for automobile and public transportation infrastructure, leading to multiple potential limitations or challenges in implementing e-bicycles [42]. In addition, the “bicycle path network design problem” refers to the challenge of strategically locating bicycle paths while considering their respective service levels, and it is becoming more complex when e-bicycle requirements are added as main problem parameters. More specifically, the “bicycle lane” is a defined area on the road, occasionally shared with pedestrians [43]. The interaction between pedestrians and e-bicycles in bicycle lanes or pedestrian areas can be a crucial challenge in the process of implementing e-bicycles owing to their high speed. Moreover, the operational costs of a bicycle and e-bicycle sharing system can significantly fluctuate depending on various factors, including population density, the size of the service area, and the location and capacity of stations [44], all of which are added challenging and determining factors in the daily use of cycling innovations.

Regarding social barriers and challenges, the potential e-bicycle users’ characteristics, e.g., students, employees, the elderly, and their income levels should be taken into consideration, as these factors influence their willingness to use e-bicycles and pay for charging [45]. A communal e-bicycle system has the potential to significantly raise awareness about e-bicycles, although supplementary tactics may be required to transform this awareness into the active contemplation of using e-bicycles for daily commuting [46]. However, the heightened enthusiasm for increased speed and a riding style that diverges from the conventional cycling approach may significantly contribute to the involvement in precarious situations while operating e-bicycles [47]. In a survey conducted in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, participants in both the Netherlands and the UK frequently emphasized the presence of a stigma associated with e-biking, characterized by the perception that e-biking represents a form of “cheating” compared to traditional pedal cycling [48]. In addition to this survey, participants underscored the high purchase price of e-bicycles and associated technology, while also highlighting concerns regarding the weight of e-bicycles, which posed challenges in maneuvering, parking, lifting over obstacles, and transporting on public transit or vehicles. Environmental factors, such as adverse weather and road conditions, emerged as the predominant impediment to e-bicycle utilization for both e-bicycle users and non-users [49]. This finding underscores that unfavorable weather and road conditions present a shared barrier to cycling, regardless of the bicycle type, be it conventional or e-bicycle.

Finally, the regulations and the requirements for the use of an e-bicycle in Greece are crucial for their implementation in Greek urban areas. In particular, electric bicycles up to 250 W and with a maximum design speed of up to 25 km/h without handling must bear the corresponding Declaration of Conformity (DC) to ELOT EN 15194 security standard, placed in a visible position by their manufacturer or its authorized representative, a corresponding signal in accordance with Regulation No. 765/2008 of the European Parliament. They are allowed to move on roads with a speed limit of over 50 km/h, but not on highway roads. No plates, safety, or driving license are required, and the use of a helmet is not mandatory. Regarding electric bicycles up to 4000 W and with a maximum design speed of up to 45 km/h, plates and driving licenses are mandatory, in addition to DC and signal. In all cases, one white or yellow light in front and one red light/reflective rear are mandatory [50]. The e-bicycle requirements reveal that electric bicycles up to 250 W and with a maximum design speed of up to 25 km/h can be easily used and adopted by citizens on their daily trips in Greek cities.

Future research could focus on identifying the most suitable measures to address threats and challenges in the implementation of electric bicycles in urban areas. For example, regarding social aspects, there is a significant gap in the awareness of sustainable mobility, social commitment, and participation in activities of the kind addressed in this research. Often, there is a resistance to change, as well as an overvaluation of the automobile as a tool for social status, and this has to be considered when designing information and awareness programs and promoting sustainable mobility as a way of life in urban communities. Local stakeholders and end-users could lack full appreciation of the benefits from a more efficient mode of travel that could be the result of the contributions by ICT and social agreements.

6. Conclusions

The current research findings indicate that the factors affecting cycling accessibility are mainly related to urban infrastructure and the level of implementing cycling advances, such as electric bicycles. The overall research findings can be summarized as follows:

• Safety concerns and the existence of appropriate infrastructure are the main factors that define citizens’ decision to use a bicycle.
• Cyclists face difficulties in high-traffic areas that lack an extended bicycle path network.
• Citizens prefer to visit urban areas with low altitude changes along the trip trajectory, which include well-defined bicycle paths that support bicycle accessibility.
• Citizens are willing to visit uphill areas but are hampered by limited bicycle accessibility.
• Citizens welcome the use of electric bicycles, which reduce limitations such as those related to age, disabilities and physical abilities, and extend conventional bicycle accessibility.
• Providing e-bicycles to citizens can increase the number of daily bicycle users in the city center, including elderly and disabled people.

Managing these factors and enhancing their positive impact is of high priority for gaining citizens’ active participation and engagement. In turn, engaged citizens would be expected to offer increased support for green mobility strategies that ensure urban sustainability and resilience. From the assessment of mobility needs and requirements in the city center, Patras could be transformed into a bicycle-friendly urban area if increased options of upgraded cycling infrastructure and tools were provided to the citizens.

Considering the range of local and central administration bodies and their range of differing interests and policies that may hamper the efficient and timely implementation of urban mobility action plans, more emphasis should be placed on decision-making processes. In infrastructure development, these plans and measures often involve short-term costs and long-term benefits, so the early assessment of availability of financial and political capital is needed. Delays in designing and deploying transportation policies are also to be considered.

Finally, bicycle and pedestrian facilities should be designed as part of a holistic urban network and not as independent and local interventions. Infrastructure should be supported by supplementary strategic actions, such as a clearly described rent/exchange system of bicycles/electric bicycles to citizens, in coordination with public transport. Further work can benefit from research in assessing the efficiency of bicycles/electric bicycles exchange systems and their impact in urban cohesion, accessibility, and resilience.