A Study on the Water Management Knowledge of Traditional Villages from the Perspective of Stormwater Resilience—A Case Study of Changqi Ancient Village in Guangdong, China

Abstract

With the advancement of resilience concepts, enhancing resilience capacity has become an effective approach to addressing rainwater and flooding issues. Most rural planning and construction efforts adopt urban planning models from economically developed regions, often leading to surface hardening, which subsequently causes drainage difficulties and severe surface water accumulation during the rainy season. In contrast, traditional Lingnan villages, exemplified by Guangdong’s Changqi Ancient Village, continue to function normally in flood-prone areas, suggesting that their water management knowledge merits investigation. Previous research on rainwater management in traditional Chinese villages has predominantly been qualitative, lacking scientific data support. This study employs an eco-social resilience perspective, combining field surveys and interviews with villagers, and utilizes the SWMM (Storm Water Management Model) software to conduct both qualitative and quantitative analyses of Changqi Ancient Village. The findings reveal the following: (1) The SWMM effectively quantifies rainwater and flood management in traditional villages. (2) From an ecological resilience perspective, the village’s geographical location is crucial. The topography, along with a rainwater regulation system comprising rivers, ponds, ditches, and permeable pavements, significantly influences the village’s drainage performance. (3) From a social resilience perspective, community participation is vital to the long-term stable development of traditional villages. This includes post-disaster collective fundraising by villagers for the restoration of rainwater and flood management facilities, the formulation of village regulations, and the construction and restoration of spiritual sites. (4) From an eco-social resilience perspective, the eco-social resilience system exhibits adaptive cyclical characteristics, where the geographical environment and the local economy significantly shape the ecological spatial patterns of Changqi, while positive interaction between nature and human society ensures the system’s dynamic equilibrium.

1. Introduction

With rapid urbanization and exacerbated global climate change, incidents of rainwater and flood disasters triggered by extreme heat and heavy rainfall are becoming increasingly frequent [1,2,3]. Research on stormwater management has primarily focused on urban areas [4,5], yet flood disasters continue to affect rural areas worldwide. In recent years, many traditional villages have encountered issues due to the direct application of urban planning models from economically developed regions, leading to widespread surface hardening and subsequent stormwater problems [6]. In contrast, traditional water management knowledge, developed over generations, demonstrates strong adaptability to the environment, helping local communities manage stormwater risks and promote sustainable water resource management [7]. Therefore, it is urgent to refine and summarize traditional water management knowledge that has been well preserved and is still functioning so it can be integrated into modern rural development.

Chinese scholars have long focused on flood control issues in traditional Chinese towns. Qingzhou Wu’s identification of the Eight Strategies for Flood Control in Ancient Chinese Cities has served as a foundational theory in this area [8]. Donghui Yang connected these strategies to the site selection, layout, storage, drainage systems, and management principles in villages in the Pearl River Delta, exploring the flood control and drainage features in this region [9]. Hongyu Zhao applied these strategies to water management in rural areas of the Loess Plateau [10]. However, since these strategies have mainly focused on engineering solutions, more attention on ecological approaches is needed.

In 1973, Holling introduced the concept of resilience, defining it as “the ability of systems to buffer or absorb disturbances” [11]. Resilience theory has since evolved through three stages: engineering resilience, ecological resilience, and socio-ecological resilience [12]. Socio-ecological resilience refers to the dynamic interaction between human societies and ecological systems, emphasizing this system’s ability to adapt, learn, innovate, and transform in response to external changes [13,14]. This perspective has gained significant attention and is now widely accepted in resilience research. At the 2002 United Nations Sustainable Development Summit, ICLEI—Local Governments for Sustainability—introduced the concept of resilience into disaster risk reduction, giving rise to the idea of “stormwater resilience”, which is now widely applied in stormwater management studies [15]. Some researchers have begun to apply resilience theory to traditional village flood management. Yuting Li, for example, developed a resilience framework incorporating cultural, technological, and material elements for village planning [16]. Minhu Zhang examined the flood control and drainage characteristics in traditional villages in the Pearl River Delta at different scales, establishing a new resilience-based framework [17]. Research on traditional village stormwater management using resilience theory is increasing, with scholars creating new theoretical frameworks and focusing on qualitative research. However, studies on traditional villages from a socio-ecological resilience perspective remain scarce. Quantitative analyses, such as those using simulation tools like the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM), are common in urban studies. For instance, Huaqiu Liang conducted a simulation experiment on runoff purification facilities in mountain villages using the SWMM [18]. In urban contexts, Yu Zhang used the SWMM and MATLAB 2016 to develop an optimization framework that integrated gray and green infrastructure for stormwater management in Guangzhou’s Pearl River New Town [5]. Samuel Park and others proposed an interactive and public-driven flood modeling framework for urban areas [19], while Yuqin Huang employed Pearson’s correlation and random forest models to investigate the factors affecting flood points in urban networks, demonstrating the importance of vertical patterns in mitigating urban flooding [20]. These studies highlight the extensive use of software simulations in scientific research, particularly in urban areas. However, significant differences in rainfall, geography, and stormwater management between urban and rural areas make it difficult to directly apply these findings to villages. Research on traditional village stormwater management requires both qualitative and quantitative exploration, along with consideration of modern rural planning.

In conclusion, the importance of drawing on ancient water management knowledge to address modern stormwater challenges is widely recognized. Research from a stormwater resilience perspective can provide a comprehensive understanding of traditional village water management. However, current studies lack both theoretical and quantitative approaches. Many traditional villages have lost their historical records, reducing the credibility of qualitative findings. Applying a socio-ecological resilience approach, combined with field interviews and SWMM simulations, can help fill these gaps. This paper seeks to answer two key questions:

(1)

The SWMM is primarily used for stormwater simulations in urban areas. How can the SWMM be adapted to stormwater management in traditional villages? Can Changqi Ancient Village continue to function during a once-in-a-century rainfall event? If so, what lessons can be learned from its water management in terms of ecological and social resilience?

(2)

From a socio-ecological resilience perspective, what resilience characteristics are reflected in traditional village stormwater management, and how does the village demonstrate these characteristics?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study Area

Changqi Ancient Village is situated in a national level-two severely flood-prone area (Figure 1) in Lubao Town, Sanshui District, Guangdong Province. Established during the Hongwu period of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1398), this village has a history spanning over 650 years. In 2016, it was included in the fourth batch of Guangdong Province’s list of traditional villages, with its basic layout well preserved. The region in which the village is located in Guangdong is characterized by low-lying terrain, with an average elevation ranging from 70 to 120 m [21]. Additionally, Guangdong experiences a subtropical maritime monsoon climate, with abundant annual rainfall exceeding 1600 mm, concentrated between April and September [22]. As a result, this region is particularly prone to floods, especially during the typhoon-prone summer season. According to the latest report from Southern Daily, from 19 to 21 April 2024, Guangdong experienced a once-in-a-century rainstorm, with an average rainfall of 121.8 mm across the region. Most of the villages in Sanshui were flooded. However, Changqi Ancient Village, with its distinctive flood control and drainage measures, successfully avoided river water flooding village roads or overflow from surrounding ponds. Its ability to withstand this large-scale flooding suggests the presence of significant water management knowledge (Figure 2 and Figure 3).

2.2. Research Methods

The focus of this study lies in qualitative analysis through field surveys and quantitative analysis involving the use of the SWMM to model and quantify the hydrological processes of short-duration heavy rainfall events in traditional villages.

2.2.1. Field Research

Field research requires the following materials: historical documents, field survey data, and oral histories from local residents. According to The Natural Disasters of Guangdong and The Annals of Sanshui County, the Sanshui region has frequently experienced floods, with more than 30 major flood events recorded during the Ming and Qing Dynasties [23,24]. Lubao, located in the northern part of Sanshui, has often been affected by floods from the Beijiang and Xijiang Rivers. Historical records from The Water Conservancy Records of Sanshui County and The Annals of Lubao Town include data on the famous “Yimao Year Great Flood”, which caused significant losses due to internal flooding in Changqi Ancient Village and nearby villages such as Cuntou, Changzhou, and Qingtang (

Table 1. Lubao Town Annals, Statistics of Water Disaster Losses in Various Villages of Lubao Town in the Fourth Year of the Republic of China (1915).

Village Name 1	Dike Name 1	Breach of Dike 1 (DD)	Collapsed Houses 1 (Rooms)	Number of Deaths 1 (Persons)	Number of Persons Affected 1 (Persons)	Flooded Farmland 1 (Acres)	Restoration Funds 1 (Yuan)
Qingtang	Qingtang Wai	294	413	5	1963	2256	213,873
Yongfeng	YongfengWai	165.4	250	11	8632	4916	23,000
Sizhou	Sizhou Wai	30.5	129	1	1653	1094	470
Cuntou	Cuntou Wai	66.45	187	2	1969	3305	3000
Xiabu	Xiabu Wai	115	1549	1	8853	7430	25,300
Changzhou	Changzhou Wai	276.2	1364	1	12,543	8920	14,378
total	-	947.55	3892	21	35,613	27,921	280,021

¹ The original data are sourced from The Annals of Lubao Town [26].

) [25,26]. However, based on field research and interviews with local residents, instances of internal flooding in Changqi Ancient Village have been rare.

2.2.2. Establishment of the SWMM

(1)

Conceptualization of the Drainage System in the Study Area

In this study, the SWMM was used to simulate the hydrological processes of heavy rainfall in Changqi Ancient Village. Combining satellite images of the study area, land use types, topographical conditions, pond distribution, and drainage flow directions, the study area was divided into 388 sub-basins, 11 runoff outlets, 353 conduit segments, and 14 ponds. The ponds and alleys around the village were named (Figure 4 and Figure 5), and the stormwater model of the study area was constructed (Figure 6). Constructing the SWMM required the following data: precipitation data, sub-catchment data, trench data, junction data, pond data, topographic elevation data, and land use data (

Table 2. Data sources for hydrological simulation.

Data Type	Specific Parameters	Data Sources
Precipitation Data	Rainfall Intensity and Duration	According to the rainfall intensity formula for Sanshui District, Foshan City, the calculation formula is as follows [27,28]: $$\mathrm{q}=\frac{2544.537(1+0.685\mathrm{l}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{P})}{{(\mathrm{t}+10.789)}^{0.703}}$$ where q is a storm’s intensity(mm/h); P is the return period (year); and t is a storm’s duration (min).
Sub-catchment data	Sub-catchment area and average slope	The sub-catchment areas could be delineated in SWMM software version 5 (Figure 5). The area and average slope of each sub-catchment were based on the region, utilizing 30 m resolution elevation data downloaded from the National Earth System Science Data Center, National Science and Technology Infrastructure of China [29]. These parameters were computed within a Geographic Information System (GIS).
	Width	According to the formula for characteristic width (width): $\mathrm{W}=\frac{\mathrm{A}\mathrm{r}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{a}}{\mathrm{F}\mathrm{l}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{w} \mathrm{L}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{t}\mathrm{h}}$.
	% Imperv	Combining current land use status and the national 10 m resolution land cover dataset released by Wuhan University in 2020, the imperviousness of each sub-basin in the study area was calculated [30].
	N-Imperv; N-perv; Dstore-Imperv; Dstore-Perv; and %Zero-Imperv	The initial values were set according to the parameter values recommended in the SWMM manual [31].
Trench data	Length, shape, dimensions, inlet offset, and outlet offset	Relevant information was obtained through field surveys and data provided by the village committee of Changqi Ancient Village.
	Roughness	The initial values were set according to the parameter values recommended in the SWMM manual [31].
Pond data	Size and depth of ponds; size, position, and number of outlets and inlets	Relevant information was obtained through field surveys and data provided by the village committee of Changqi Ancient Village.
Terrain data	Elevation terrain	A 1:1000 topographic map provided by the Changqi Ancient Village committee.
Land use data	Land use types and areas	The land use data originate from the national 10 m resolution land cover dataset released by Wuhan University in 2020 [30]. It was integrated with Google Maps and field surveys to delineate the corresponding study area in the GIS for this paper.
Junction data	Maximum depth; initial depth	Relevant information was obtained through field surveys and data provided by the village committee of Changqi Ancient Village.

). Through field survey measurements, the basic attributes of the ponds and drainage channels in Changqi Ancient Village were ascertained (

Table 3. Attributes (area, depth, and initial depth) of the 14 ponds in Changqi Ancient Village.

Pond Label	Pond Area 1 (ha)	Initial Depth 1 (m)	Pond Depth 1 (m)	Pond Label	Pond Area 1 (ha)	Initial Depth 1 (m)	Pond Depth 1 (m)
1	1.738	0.5	3	8	0.292	1	3
2	0.272	1	2.5	9	0.423	1	4
3	0.985	1	3	10	0.735	1	3
4	0.998	1	3	11	0.504	1	3
5	1.123	1	4	12	0.149	1	3
6	0.798	1	3	13	1.307	1	3
7	0.999	1	3	14	2.317	0.5	3

¹ Relevant information was obtained through field surveys and data provided by the village committee of Changqi Ancient Village.

and

Table 4. Attributes (depth) of the channels.

Position 1	Depth of Trench 1 (m)
Trench close to the mountain	0.5–1
Trench away from the mountain	0.3–0.5

¹ The relevant data were obtained from field surveys and measurements conducted by the authors.

).

(2)

Rainfall Specification

Rainfall quantity is a critical input variable for the SWMM. Given the predominance of single-peak rainfall patterns in intense storms in China, this study utilizes widely adopted Chinese methodologies, such as the single-peak process and the Chicago rainfall model, to characterize rainfall intensity. The calculation formula is as follows [27,28]:

$$\mathrm{q}=\frac{2544.537(1+0.685\mathrm{l}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{P})}{{(\mathrm{t}+10.789)}^{0.703}}$$

(1)

where q is a storm’s intensity(mm/h); P is the return period (year); and t is a storm’s duration (min)

Based on the storm intensity formula and using the Chicago rainfall pattern generator, the precipitation time distribution is determined with a peak rainfall coefficient of 0.5 and a time interval of 1 min over a 24 h period. Subsequently, using the storm intensity calculation formula for Sanshui District, Foshan City [27,28], the rainfall for recurrence periods of 1, 2, 5, 20, 50, and 100 years is calculated to compare changes in pond storage under different rainfall intensities. The rainfall amounts calculated are 131.5699 mm, 194.5604 mm, 221.6902 mm, 248.8200 mm, 284.6837 mm, and 311.8135 mm, respectively. Dynamic wave calculations are used to simulate urban flooding in the research area [32,33,34,35].

(3)

Parameter Settings

The SWMM encompasses numerous parameters, which can be classified into two categories: geometric parameters and empirical parameters. Geometric parameters can be obtained directly through field surveys, measurements, and GIS tools (Table 2). Empirical parameters cannot be directly measured or computed; for this study, they are set based on relevant references from the literature (

Table 5. Empirical parameters.

Empirical Parameters	Initial Values
N-Imperv	0.014
N-Perv	0.1
Dstore-Imperv	0.2
Dstore-Perv	0.25
%Zero-Imperv	25
Max. Infil. Rate	5
Min. Infil. Rate	4.74
Decay Constant (1/h)	4
Drying Time (day)	7

) [31].

3. Results

Following the simulation calculations, the results indicated that the ponds surrounding Changqi Ancient Village did not overflow (

Table 6. Pond storage volumes around Changqi Ancient Village under 24-hour short-duration storms of different return periods: 100a refers to a 100-year-return-period storm; 50a refers to a 50-year-return-period storm; 20a refers to a 20-year-return-period storm; 10a refers to a 10-year-return-period storm; 5a refers to a 5-year-return-period storm; 1a refers to a 1-year-return-period storm.

Pond Serial Number	Maximum Volume/ 1000 m3	Overflow (Yes or No)	Percentage of Maximum Storage Capacity of Ponds Around Changqi Ancient Village Under 24 h Short-Duration Storms of Different Return Periods/%
			100a	50a	20a	10a	5a	1a
JT1	2.320	No	77	76	73	71	68	59
JT2	2.222	No	89	86	81	78	73	60
JT3	2.600	No	87	87	87	87	86	77
JT4	2.600	No	87	87	87	87	87	87
JT5	2.600	No	65	65	65	65	65	65
JT6	2.500	No	83	83	83	83	83	83
JT7	2.500	No	83	83	83	83	83	83
JT8	2.500	No	83	83	83	83	83	83
JT9	2.186	No	63	63	63	63	63	63
JT10	2.194	No	83	83	83	83	83	83
JT11	1.980	No	83	83	83	83	83	83
JT12	1.132	No	69	66	63	60	57	48
JT13	1.776	No	83	83	83	83	83	81
JT14	0.884	No	44	42	39	36	33	26

), confirming the village remained free from inundation.

Building on this finding, the present study integrates existing resilience theory to analyze the ecological and social resilience characteristics exhibited by Changqi Ancient Village in response to rainwater disasters. The predominant resilience features recognized include adaptability, interdependence, network connectivity, self-organization, robustness, and diversity. Finally, it elucidates how these attributes achieve ecological–social resilience coupling at the levels of natural ecology and socio-cultural dynamics, thereby providing practical insights and recommendations for contemporary rainwater management in traditional village settings.

3.1. Ecological Resilience: Adaptability and Network Connectivity

The ecological natural environment of traditional villages serves as a crucial spatial carrier for ecological resilience and is a key factor determining whether a village can operate sustainably and orderly. The water system of the external environment, along with the village’s topography and pond distribution, collectively forms a multi-nested structure for rainwater regulation. By actively adopting strategies of adaptation, utilization, and avoidance, along with synergistic adjustment of internal elements within the system, self-circulation of the ecosystem is established. This collaborative effort resists disturbances from external rainwater disasters, mitigates the impact of rainwater shocks, and fully demonstrates the adaptability and network connectivity of rainwater resilience.

(1)

Strategic Site Selection: Mitigating the Direct Impact of Rivers

Changqi Ancient Village strategically uses site selection to effectively avoid river erosion, fully reflecting the wisdom of managing water from the adaptive stormwater resilience perspective of the “river-bend” and shallow-water habitation.

At a larger scale, the location of Changqi Ancient Village is at the confluence of the Luobao River and the Guyun Donghai River (Figure 7), also known as the “river-bend” [36]. The “river-bend” refers to a convex bank, the depositional bank of the river. Compared to the concave bank, it experiences more sediment accumulation and provides more stable geology, thus avoiding water erosion. This illustrates the coordination and adjustment between stormwater and the environment, indicating that the “river-bend” location has strong inclusivity (Figure 8).

At a smaller scale, the traditional settlement of Changqi Ancient Village is located on the inner curve of the river, in an area where the river bends and embraces the village, known as the “Australian position” (Figure 8). The “Australian position” refers to the side where the water flow is slower, allowing continuous sediment accumulation (Figure 7) [36].

(2)

A Dense Pond Network: Maintaining Dynamic Water Balance

In the horizontal dimension, Changqi Ancient Village adopts a nested spatial organization pattern for hydrological management. Multiple small-scale pond units arranged around the village are repeated to form larger units integrated with rivers to create a multi-level dynamic water management network system capable of handling large-scale rainfall events. Within this system, the capacity and storage capabilities of both ponds and rivers progressively increase. During the flood season, pond water levels rise, facilitating lateral hydrological exchange within smaller-scale ponds, while simultaneously managing the water flow laterally towards larger-scale rivers, thus maintaining water balance within the village.

Based on the simulated data results (Table 6), the percentage of the capacity for overflow of the ponds surrounding Changqi Ancient Village ranges from 26% to 89%. Table 6 summarizes the storage capacities of the ponds surrounding Changqi Ancient Village during a 24 h short-duration storm event at various recurrence intervals. Ponds near the village (e.g., JT4, JT5, JT6, JT7, JT8, JT9, JT10, and JT11) exhibit percentages indicative of a consistently full capacity for overflow at the peak rainfall intensity at 12:00, indicating their primary role in buffering. In contrast, ponds adjacent to the Jiuqu River (e.g., JT1, JT2, JT3, JT12, JT13, and JT14) show a positive correlation between their storage capacity and rainfall volume due to their proximity for rapid discharge into the river.

These findings suggest that Changqi Ancient Village manages water effectively through lateral hydrological exchange among ponds, preventing overflow during heavy rainstorms and maintaining normal operational order, highlighting the essential role of systemic network connectivity.

(3)

The Hilltop Location: Establishing Vertical Flood Control Systems

Early inhabitants strategically chose elevated terrain to mitigate flood impacts, comprehensively adapting to nature. Changqi Ancient Village was consciously settled near hills with a minimum elevation of 10 m, and artificial platforms about 0.6 m high were constructed 11 m above sea level. Thus, the total elevation of the lowest terrain and artificial platforms in Changqi Ancient Village is 11.6 m, closely aligning with historical records of the highest water level of 11.7 m at the Jiuqu River, documented in the Sanshui County Water Conservancy Annals (

Table 7. Table of river level characteristics in Sanshui (Pearl River base elevation).

River Item Name	Station Name	Maximum Water Level (m)		Minimum Water Level (m)		Maximum Tide Level		Mean Tidal Range at High Tide (m)
		Water Level	Day, Month, Year	Water Level	Day, Month, Year	Tide Level	Day, Month, Year
Xijiang River	Makou	9.584	27 June 1968	−0.546	20 February 1955	1.30	19 January 1972
Beijiang River	Datang	13.04	9 May 1968	0.84	13 March 1960	-	-
Beijiang River	Lubao	11.697	27 June 1968	0.207	13 March 1960	-	-
Beijiang River	Mafang	-	-	0.037	24 March 1955	0.90	23 September 1957	0.15
Beijiang River	Sanshui (Hekou)	9.897	27 June 1968	−0.943 −0.493	1 February 1902 20 February 1955	1.38	9 November 1972	0.26
Beijiang River	Xinan	9.09	27 June 1968	−0.64	20 February 1955	-	-
Sze Yin Kau	Ganggen	10.048	27 June 1968	−0.502	20 February 1955	1.20	28 May 1964	0.26
Jinshui River	Dabutang	12.85	27 June 1968

), effectively preventing flood overflow and inundation risks to the village [25]. Moreover, early inhabitants selected gently sloping hills followed by steep slopes, aligning with contour lines, in establishing the village, creating a vertical drainage system where rainwater flows efficiently according to gravity, significantly enhancing the drainage speed during the rainy season [25].

In the vertical dimension, Changqi Ancient Village adopts a nested hierarchical water management pattern, utilizing elevation differences to form a macroscopic water circulation framework as follows: “mountaintop rainwater (source rainwater)–horizontal and vertical streets and alleys with clear ditches (rainwater in the runoff process)–self-clearing ponds (the rainwater collection endpoint)” (Figure 9). Rainwater exceeding the mountaintop carrying capacity flows through the street and alley skeleton system of “17 vertical streets and 10 horizontal alleys”.

The simulation results indicate overflow at the drainage channel nodes. However, the SWMM does not directly measure the water depth at these overflow points. When water accumulates at overflow nodes within the study area, the SWMM treats the upper area of the nodes as storage facilities, discharging accumulated water when the drainage system is not fully saturated [37,38]. Based on the overflow mechanism and the relevant literature [37,39], the water accumulated at the nodes is approximated as a conical body, allowing for the water depth at each overflow node to be calculated. The calculation steps are

$$\mathrm{V}=\frac{1}{3}\mathsf{\Pi }{\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{s}}\right)}^2\mathrm{d}$$

(2)

where V is the volume of the cone (m³); d is the water depth (m); and s is the average slope (%).

Table 8. Summary of flood volume at drainage channel nodes in longitudinal and horizontal alleys of Changqi Ancient Village during 24 h short-duration storms with a 100-year return period.

Alleyway Name	Node Name	Total Flood Volume/ 1 × 106 ltr	Depth of Surface Water/cm	Minor Ponding? (Yes or No)
Vertical 1 Alley	J65	4.223	8.10	Yes
Vertical 7 Alley	J161	1.613	5.37	Yes
Vertical 10 Alley	J185	1.200	5.06	Yes
Vertical 14 Alley	J212	1.003	3.34	Yes
Horizontal 9 Alleyway	J98	1.305	5.72	Yes

presents the flood volume in the drainage channel nodes at noon, the peak time of the heaviest rainfall (Table 8). The calculations show that the surface water depth at each node is less than 15 cm. According to the Outdoor Drainage Design Code, a water depth of less than 15 cm is generally considered minor flooding, with a negligible impact on traffic or other activities [14]. Additionally, the longitudinal profile of the drainage channels during different recurrence periods over 24 h short-duration storms in Changqi Ancient Village (

Table 9. Longitudinal profile of water level changes in drainage channels of Changqi Ancient Village during 24 h short-duration storms with a 100-year return period.

Alleyway Name Time	11:45	12:00	12:15	12:30	12:45
Vertical 1 Alley
Vertical 7 Alley
Vertical 10 Alley
Vertical 14 Alley
Horizontal 9 Alleyway

) reveals that at rainfall levels of 311.8135 mm, 284.6837 mm, 248.8200 mm, 221.6902 mm, 194.5604 mm, and 131.5669 mm, despite initial overflows, the channels cease to overflow within 45 min of the peak rainfall, returning to normal thereafter. This indicates that the surrounding ponds can accommodate a certain amount of rainwater, ensuring the village’s drainage system functions properly. The data suggest that rainwater flows down open channels along the streets, with horizontal channels extending the runoff path of the vertical channels and buffering the flow speed and volume, and eventually converges into storage ponds that reduce the peak flow, delay the peak time, and facilitate efficient drainage. The interconnected and coordinated operation of this system’s elements forms a self-circulating network, exemplifying robust network connectivity.

3.2. Social Resilience: Self-Organization

(1)

Strong Flood Control Awareness Among Villagers: Actively Improving Public Facilities

The villagers’ awareness of flood control is a key reflection of the self-organizing nature of social resilience. Through interviews and field research, it was found that in order to improve the village’s flood discharge efficiency, the village elders, after consultation, decided to expand the capacity of Ziqing Pond and used the excess soil to raise the height of Wenbi Mountain. The villagers, led by the elders, collectively worked on the project, ultimately raising the height of Wenbi Mountain by 3.5 m. This not only increased the water storage capacity of Ziqing Pond but also steepened the slope of the mountain, significantly improving the flood discharge efficiency. Moreover, the villagers adapted to local conditions by using materials and traditional craftsmanship suitable for the Lingnan climate to repair and improve public infrastructure. For example, they used local stone to repair severely damaged bluestone streets and alleys (Figure 10).

However, past infrastructure was insufficient to meet modern needs. According to local residents, “The earliest bridge connecting Changqi Ancient Village to the outside was a simple wooden plank bridge across the Jiuqu River, which has long since disappeared. The bridge was about 30 cm wide and close to the river’s surface, making it prone to submersion during heavy rainstorms, leaving villagers without a passage”. In 1987, the powerful Lu clan of Changqi initiated a fundraising effort, leading to the construction of the first reinforced concrete bridge, Changqi Bridge, which is 5 m wide. This significantly improved the transportation conditions for villagers during stormy weather (Figure 11).

(2)

Establishing Village Regulations: Promoting Household Water Management Awareness

Village rules and civic agreements are essential for fostering community-wide awareness of water management systems and mobilizing villagers to actively participate in improving public water facilities. Research interviews revealed that the villagers have established customary agreements: in their daily lives, each household independently cleans the ditches in front of their homes to prevent them from becoming clogged during the rainy season (Figure 12). This proactive approach includes taking responsibility for maintaining the village’s overall drainage and storage systems.

(3)

Constructing Spiritual Spaces: Sustaining Local Cultural Customs

In flood-prone regions, a common practice is to construct temples and restore ancestral halls as spiritual spaces for the populace to be educated and regulated, villagers’ aspirations to be expressed, and local customs and traditions to be preserved [17].

Ancestral communities along the Lubao Creek area have established temples dedicated to water deities and dragons, such as the Xujian Ancestral Temple and Hongsheng Ancient Temple (Figure 13). Research interviews reveal that every Dragon Boat Festival, Changqi Ancient Village and its neighboring villages hold dragon boat races on Lubao Creek. Before the races, villagers collectively worship at the Xujian Ancestral Temple, placing a pair of paper roosters on the boats to pray for the village’s safety. Moreover, in the northeastern corner of Changqi Ancient Village, the Qishan Ancient Temple, once dedicated to water deities, serves as a spiritual space for ancestral prayers seeking protection from water disasters.

Ancestral halls serve as important venues for uniting the community (Figure 13), maintaining family ties, and discussing communal matters, particularly during flood disasters. According to the Sanshui County Water Conservancy Chronicle, during the Qing Dynasty, the Lu, Huang, He, and Zhong families of Changqi Ancient Village collaborated in post-disaster reconstruction and repair efforts [25]. Over time, this cooperative effort expanded to include neighboring villages and clans, jointly enhancing flood prevention by annually reinforcing embankments and renovating buildings [25]. In the flood-prone Sanshui region, the creation of diverse spiritual spaces reflects villagers’ hope for favorable weather conditions and mitigation of water hazards, embodying the self-organizing resilience of the community. These spaces provide physical locations crucial to safeguarding local living environments.

3.3. Socio-Ecological Resilience: An Adaptive Cycle

Most socio-ecological resilience systems undergo a repetitive cycle of development, known as the “adaptive cycle” [40]. Throughout its history, Changqi Ancient Village has experienced four stages: growth, stability, decline, and revival (

Table 10. Analysis of spatial patterns in Changqi Ancient Village during the four phases of growth, stability, decline, and revival.

Adaptive Cycle Stages	Village Spatial Layout	Functional Organization Diagram	Evolution Diagram Reconstruction
Growth Phase
Stable Phase
Decline Phase
Revival Phase

). These stages are primarily reflected in the evolution of the village’s spatial structure, which aligns with the analysis of the dynamic mechanisms in socio-ecological resilience systems by the Resilience Alliance, an international academic organization led by Holling [41].

(1)

The Growth Phase

During the growth phase, the characteristics of flood management in traditional villages were primarily reflected in the site selection and resource utilization. Traditional villages needed to meet specific production and living needs, such as agriculture and livestock farming, which inherently required reliance on external natural environments and resources. As a result, villagers placed great emphasis on the selection of water resources and terrain when establishing a village. In the case of Changqi Village, the two key factors considered by the original settlers were the water resources provided by the Jiuqu River in front of the village and the elevated terrain of the surrounding hills. These two elements became the core foundation of the village, creating a natural sense of cohesion and unity during its development.

In the early stages of the village’s establishment, the ancestors of Changqi Village formed initial flood management strategies by observing the natural environment. The layout of the village was designed, as was the water system, to ensure water needs for daily production and living were met. Residences were built on higher ground to reduce the impact of floods, while lower-lying areas were used as farmland and ponds, serving as functional elements for flood regulation. This spatial planning, based on the principles of “relying on the mountains and being adjacent to water”, allowed the village to effectively mitigate flood risks during its growth phase, minimizing the impact of natural disasters on both the villagers’ lives and their means of production. As the resident population increased, the internal spatial structure of the village became more developed, and the street and transportation systems gradually matured, naturally forming a drainage system over time.

The flood management characteristics during the growth phase were primarily based on dependence on and rational utilization of the natural environment. Through strategic village site selection, terrain use, and the establishment of a preliminary drainage system, Changqi Village successfully built an early flood defense system. While the management methods were relatively simple, this harmonious relationship with nature laid the foundation for the village’s future development and flood resilience, setting the direction for flood management in the subsequent stages.

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The Stability Phase

After the rapid development phase, where the village expanded outward from its core groups, Changqi Village’s adaptive cycle entered a prolonged stable phase.

In this phase, the village’s overall spatial structure had essentially taken shape, particularly in terms of its flood-resistant characteristics during the rainy and flood seasons. The layout of the streets and alleys not only considered daily transportation convenience but also cleverly integrated drainage and flood prevention needs, forming a comb-like layout that aligned with the natural terrain. The drainage system was built along the streets and alleys, serving as a critical channel for rapid water discharge during flood seasons, ensuring that rainwater could quickly drain into the Jiuqu River and prevent widespread flooding. This layout not only enhanced the village’s self-regulation during the rainy season but also maintained its functionality through regular maintenance and cleaning by the villagers. Public spaces, such as ancestral halls, also served as temporary shelters during floods, and villagers would often gather there for post-disaster discussions to determine repair measures and future flood prevention plans. Overall, the coordination between the spatial layout and the drainage system of Changqi Village provided strong protective and recovery capabilities during the rainy and flood seasons, making this a key factor in the village’s long-term sustainability during the stable phase.

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The Decline Phase

During the decline phase, Changqi Village’s adaptive cycle system gradually encountered difficulties as the village’s internal functions became increasingly rigid and incapable of adapting to rapidly changing modern environments. With the accelerated pace of urbanization, large numbers of young workers migrated to cities, exacerbating the phenomenon of village hollowing. The demographic structure of the village became increasingly skewed toward the elderly and the very young. A lack of awareness and preparedness for flood risks, combined with failure to effectively pass down flood safety knowledge and management practices, directly impacted the operation of the village’s flood management infrastructure. For example, drainage ditches became clogged and were left uncleared, farmland shrank, and the once-maintained dike–pond system fell into disrepair, further weakening the village’s flood resilience.

The decline phase not only marked the deterioration of the village’s internal functions but also reflected a mismatch between external environmental changes and the village’s adaptive mechanisms. Aging infrastructure and outdated management systems made it difficult for the village to cope with new challenges, plunging the adaptive cycle into a low point. However, this phase did not signify the end of the village. Instead, it presented an opportunity for revival, as the core functions of the traditional village remained intact, awaiting reactivation and transformation to meet new developmental needs.

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The Revival Phase

According to the adaptive cycle theory, not all of the elements that contribute to the development of a village disappear simultaneously during the decline phase. The traditional village’s flood management system can survive and evolve through functional transformation and the reactivation of dormant dynamics, entering either a new adaptive cycle or repeating a previous one. From the late decline phase to the early reconstruction phase, the injection of new driving forces, productivity, or production relations can reactivate the original spatial functions, leading to adjustments and transformations in a traditional village. This enables the village to meet new production and living requirements and innovate its industrial functions, ultimately driving the revival of the village and reactivating its flood management system.

In December 2016, Changqi Village was successfully listed in the fourth batch of China’s traditional village directory. As its population gradually returned, Changqi Village’s flood management system received new impetus. This increase in population not only brought back labor but also injected more resources and attention into the village’s flood management revival. The rising demand for living and production prompted the urgent repair and renovation of the village’s infrastructure. Particularly, within the context of growing eco-tourism and cultural tourism industries, the village’s drainage and dike–pond systems, as part of its cultural and ecological landscape, garnered more attention and protection. These traditional flood management systems were reactivated to meet the needs of the new population structure and functional demands, breathing new life into systems that had previously become outdated or abandoned.

At the same time, the diverse needs of the returning population drove the innovation and transformation of the village’s spatial functions. The younger generation, more receptive to modern flood management concepts, integrated traditional knowledge with contemporary techniques, gradually forming a water management model that met the needs of the present day. This integration not only enhanced the village’s overall flood resilience but also created new economic opportunities by linking flood management with industrial development.

In summary, the returning population provided Changqi Village’s flood management revival with multiple forms of support—human resources, capital, and new ideas. By combining traditional and modern management practices, the village’s flood management system not only recovered but also laid a solid foundation for future sustainable development. The revival phase marks the village’s entry into a new growth phase in its adaptive cycle, addressing current flood challenges while ensuring the village’s long-term prosperity and achieving true sustainability.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

4.1. Discussion

Modern stormwater management focuses on optimizing drainage systems to reduce flood risks, heavily relying on technological interventions [5,42]. However, applying such methods directly to traditional villages could lead to environmental damage, increased costs, and the destruction of historical buildings [6].

Previous research on the water management knowledge of traditional Chinese villages has mostly involved subjective qualitative analyses, relying on field surveys, interviews, and historical documents [8,9,10,17]. While this approach helps to identify traditional villages with stormwater advantages and clarifies the basic principles and strategies from a traditional flood control perspective, it tends to focus on engineering practices while overlooking the importance of ecological aspects. Moreover, past research lacked objective scientific methods for quantitatively assessing the water management capabilities of traditional villages. This study used the SWMM to not only simulate and demonstrate that Changqi Ancient Village can continue functioning during a once-in-a-century rainfall but also to quantify its stormwater retention and flood dynamics during heavy rain. By using the SWMM, this study explored the construction and simulation of stormwater management models for traditional villages, providing an analytical tool for studying water management knowledge in such settings and expanding the application scope of the SWMM. Furthermore, based on urban typology, this study visualized the historical evolution of Changqi Ancient Village’s spatial structure, enabling a qualitative analysis of how the village achieved a coupling mechanism in socio-ecological resilience in water resource management. This contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the village’s historical adaptive behavior and helps predict and replicate effective development pathways for the revival of traditional villages.

The water management knowledge of Changqi Ancient Village has proven valuable in terms of both ecological and social aspects, providing insights for modern development. However, traditional villages like Changqi still face significant challenges, such as a lack of human resources, incomplete local regulations, and limited cooperation from villagers. Traditional water management knowledge has limitations in modern times and needs careful evaluation and adaptation to achieve sustainable development. Specifically, from an ecological resilience perspective, it is important to preserve the village’s surrounding ecological structure and internal distributed ditch layout. Modern technology could complement the traditional single-function drainage facilities, such as adding cover plates to open channels. From a social resilience perspective, digital twin technology could be used to create an interactive platform that empowers villagers as disaster responders and recorders, ensuring the integration of modern development with traditional wisdom [19]. In summary, applying traditional water management knowledge to modern village renewal not only can preserve traditional village culture but can also enhance local cultural identity.

4.2. Study Limitations

This study demonstrates the water management knowledge of traditional villages like Changqi in the Lingnan region and analyzes how socio-ecological resilience was achieved throughout its historical evolution. The goal is to draw attention to the water management knowledge of traditional villages and its implications for modern rural planning. However, since this study focuses on a single case, it may not fully represent the water management knowledge of all the traditional villages in the Lingnan region. Future research could expand the sample size to summarize the regional water management knowledge and apply these insights to the protection and development of other traditional villages. Additionally, the SWMM and simulations used in this study were based on estimated data, lacking real-world measurements. While the parameters fit within the model’s calibration range, the simulation results are only approximations of the actual conditions. Future research could use rain gauges and sensors in the study area to calibrate the model with real data, improving the accuracy of the simulation results.

4.3. Conclusions

This paper aims to explain the water management knowledge of traditional Chinese villages using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Changqi Ancient Village is a typical traditional village in the Lingnan region of China. Using the socio-ecological resilience coupling mechanism as a starting point, the SWMM was employed to simulate and quantify the stormwater processes in Changqi Ancient Village. The main research findings are as follows:

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The SWMM effectively quantifies stormwater management in traditional villages.

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From an ecological resilience perspective, the village’s geographical location is crucial. The terrain, along with the rainwater regulation system consisting of rivers, ponds, ditches, and permeable surfaces, significantly influences the village’s drainage performance.

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From a social resilience perspective, community participation is essential to the long-term stability of the village, including post-disaster collective fundraising to repair stormwater management facilities, the establishment of local rules, and the restoration of spiritual sites.

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From a socio-ecological resilience perspective, the adaptive cycle of the socio-ecological system is evident. The geographic environment and the industrial economy are the primary factors influencing the ecological spatial structure of Changqi Ancient Village, while positive interaction between nature and society ensures dynamic balance in this system.