Hydrogen Valley in Cyprus: Insights and Strategies for Citizen Engagement

Abstract

In remote areas or islands like Cyprus, the isolated energy system, high energy consumption in the transport sector and projected excess electricity production from solar sources create favourable conditions for establishing a hydrogen valley. But even after addressing technological, managerial, economic and financial challenges, the success of a hydrogen valley hinges on the acceptance and engagement of the local population. The role of citizens is under-researched by academia and overlooked by policymakers. Our paper’s contribution is unique data from a purposefully developed survey of Cypriot residents. The findings reveal robust support for the renewable energy transition in principle, with 90% expressing supportive views, of which 57% ‘strongly support’ the transition, and notably, middle-aged, more educated and fully employed individuals showing the strongest support. At the same time, our results show that 62% are unfamiliar with the concept of a hydrogen economy. The promising finding is that 80% of citizens are ‘very likely’ (25%) or ‘somewhat likely’ (55%) to engage in discussions or activities related to the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus. Gender differences in the willingness to engage are, however, evident: 32% of males indicated they are ‘very likely’ to participate versus 23% of females. We conclude that the prevailing citizen behaviour in Cyprus is “Seeking Information”, and we make policy suggestions outlining the top ten engagement tools to foster awareness among the general population and the top ten strategies targeting active supporters of hydrogen in Cyprus to elevate their involvement to ‘Action’ and ‘Advocacy’ levels of engagement.

1. Introduction

The European Green Deal aspires to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, positioning Europe as the first climate-neutral continent. Hydrogen, driven by its versatile properties and recent technological advancements, has become key for the European Union (EU) to achieve the green energy transition.

Hydrogen possesses numerous applications across industry, transport and building sectors. More importantly, hydrogen can be used as an energy carrier and storage medium. It can be produced through the electrolysis of water using electricity. During electrolysis, electricity is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, effectively storing the energy in hydrogen. This hydrogen can be stored and transported, making hydrogen an energy carrier.

The ability of hydrogen to store and preserve energy offers a critical advantage over other counterparts, like the direct use of electricity coming from photovoltaics or wind turbines. While fossil fuels are in general both storable and transportable, their nature inherently limits long-term sustainability. In contrast, renewable energy sources, through their abundance, are intermittent and lack inherent storage and transportability. Hence, hydrogen meets all those challenges by converting renewable energy into storable and on-demand resources. The ultimate integrated target is to increase the share of hydrogen in Europe’s energy mix from the current level of less than 2% to 13–14% by 2050 [1]. This implies that hydrogen should reach approximately one-seventh of the final energy consumption in 25 years.

The EU hydrogen policy framework introduces the concept of “Hydrogen Valleys”, which are defined as localized hydrogen clusters, including remote areas, regional ecosystems or islands. These clusters will depend on local hydrogen production and consumption, with transportation confined to short distances. Beyond applications in industry and transport, hydrogen valleys will utilize hydrogen for electricity storage and grid balancing, as well as for heating/cooling residential and commercial buildings.

Cyprus is an island with no indigenous hydrocarbon energy sources (at least at the exploitation phase). Its energy grid is isolated, solely relying on a single vertically integrated utility, with no interconnections to neighbouring systems. The power generation system of the Republic of Cyprus heavily depends on imported fuels, which are primarily heavy fuel oil and gasoline, resulting in high CO₂ emissions.

Cyprus’ Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan [2] necessitates a radical transformation of the energy system and requires the achievement of at least 23% renewable energy sources in final energy consumption towards 2030. The plan provides very promising projections for energy generation in Cyprus and shows that Cyprus can become a country exporting electricity produced from solar energy. The solar energy potential of Cyprus is approximately 3.5 times higher than the current electricity demand. Therefore, it becomes clear that Cyprus can produce more green electricity than required for its own needs [3,4].

The EU-wide strategic directions for green energy transition, bolstered by technological innovations, align well with the economic expediency of hydrogen implementation in Cyprus. The island’s geographical constraints and the structure of its economy, which sees the highest energy consumption in the transport sector, make hydrogen an attractive solution. Additionally, the projected excess of electricity production from solar sources provides a viable pathway for green hydrogen production. These factors collectively originate favourable conditions for the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus.

The green energy project for establishing the hydrogen valley in Cyprus necessitates addressing numerous technological, managerial, economic and financial challenges. However, the ultimate objective of a hydrogen valley is to enhance the lives of citizens. Therefore, the success of a hydrogen valley hinges on the awareness, acceptance and engagement of the local population.

Like other green energy projects, hydrogen valleys primarily deliver environmental benefits, which cannot always be effectively realized through traditional market mechanisms. As a result, public acceptance and citizen engagement are of vital importance. This article has two primary objectives:

• To examine the current state of citizen engagement with hydrogen technology in Cyprus;
• To propose key strategies for fostering citizen engagement in the development of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus.

Having conducted a hydrogen awareness survey of Cypriot residents, we have gained valuable insights into citizens’ attitudes, awareness and willingness to engage with hydrogen initiatives. Our findings show strong support for the renewable energy transition and a high willingness to participate in hydrogen valley-related activities. Yet, this study also reveals that most of the population engages only at the weakest level, “Awareness”, with prevailing citizen behaviour characterized as “Seeking information”.

Using insights from survey data analysis, we propose tools for citizen engagement strategies related to a hydrogen valley in Cyprus. The latter is the main scientific contribution of this study, as it makes significant policy suggestions for the critical yet often overlooked aspect of hydrogen valleys: the role of citizens. By focusing on awareness, acceptance and engagement in Cyprus, an island with unique energy challenges and opportunities, this study offers practical strategies for involving people in hydrogen initiatives in other parts of the world. These insights may provide a blueprint that can be applied to similar projects across the globe.

In Section 2 of this article, we undertake a review of the existing literature on hydrogen valleys, with a particular focus on the role of citizen engagement in advancing green energy projects. In Section 3, we establish a framework for analysing the evolution of citizen engagement over time. This section also details the data collection process, including the design of survey instruments, research design and the employed methodology. Section 4 presents the findings from the statistical analysis of the survey data. This includes key findings and insights derived from the data. Section 5 delves into a discussion of the findings, linking them to broader theoretical and practical implications. Finally, Section 6 summarizes the study’s main conclusions and outlines actionable recommendations and proposals for future research. This article emphasizes that policymakers must integrate technological deployment with coordinated and dynamic engagement frameworks. Additionally, this article includes two appendices: Appendix A outlines the range of hydrogen citizen engagement tools, and Appendix B includes the p-values for Fisher’s exact test for the null hypotheses tested in this study, as well as pie charts that illustrate how respondents’ answers to specific questions of interest differ across various demographic groups. Appendix C provides descriptive statistics of the hydrogen knowledge score variable.

2. Literature Review

European regions play a key role in building a hydrogen ecosystem and launching a clean hydrogen economy across the continent. The co-location of hydrogen suppliers with multiple end-users should foster the production of hydrogen and the development of the necessary infrastructure in the region. The hydrogen value chain holds the potential to drive sustainable regional development, foster economic growth and provide long-term employment opportunities. The concept of hydrogen valleys falls within this context. The purpose of hydrogen valleys is to “bring together clean hydrogen production, storage, distribution and end-use into fully functioning and sustainable local or regional value chains” [5].

The academic literature supports the idea of hydrogen valleys. For example, having analysed different aspects of the policy task for scaling up low-carbon hydrogen production in Europe, in particular the locality of hydrogen production (centralized vs. distributed), López et al. [6] conclude that hydrogen valleys seem to be the strategic approach. By generating localized “mini-economies”, hydrogen valleys provide economic incentives, jobs, and advance decarbonization. Also, Vivanco-Martín et al. [7] (p. 9) highlighted that “one main attraction of the hydrogen valleys is the fact that they are integrated systems; since they cover the value chain, they combine supply and demand”.

Hydrogen valleys are often examined through cross-project analyses across multiple countries. For example, McWilliams et al. [8] emphasize the consistency of national strategies in Germany, Portugal and Poland with the hydrogen valley approach. Quitzow et al. [9] indicate that hydrogen valley initiatives are concentrated in high-capacity EU Member States, with lower activity in Eastern and Southeastern Europe. Wolf [10] points out regional heterogeneity and infrastructure limitations as challenges.

Additionally, Majka et al. [11] conducted a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis of hydrogen projects in various countries. They concluded that the nature of the area is a significant factor. In particular, the location of the valley in a small territory (island, province, country), particularly locations isolated from large industrial areas, and the need for energy autonomy can facilitate hydrogen valley development. The role of seaports is crucial, as Notteboom et al. [12] discuss the prerequisites for ports to succeed in supporting the green hydrogen economy. A country-wise analysis (or even a particular region) of hydrogen valleys can be found, for example, in [13,14,15,16], which analyse hydrogen valleys in Spain, Sweden, Italy and Greece. The hydrogen transformation of a country is an energy mega-project that requires careful consideration from multiple perspectives and the resolution of a wide range of complex, multidisciplinary questions. Research in this area, which often focuses on enhancing national energy and climate plans or providing a hydrogen transition roadmap, views hydrogen as a tool for industrial development and economic diversification. Governments are typically regarded as the primary drivers of hydrogen development, while citizen engagement, due to the complexity of the task, if mentioned at all, is often considered a secondary challenge to be addressed in the later stages of hydrogen implementation.

Hydrogen is vital for hydrogen valleys, supporting applications in transportation, industry and residential use. Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are key to its adoption, especially in transportation, requiring reliable and durable performance under dynamic conditions. Recent advances, such as deep learning and health index-based methods, have improved the accuracy of PEMFC health state estimation and lifetime prediction [17,18]. These innovations enhance reliability, fostering public trust and driving the transition to a sustainable hydrogen economy in hydrogen valleys.

In contrast, renewable energy sources, through their abundance, are intermittent and lack inherent storage and transportability. Hence, hydrogen meets all those challenges by converting renewable energy into storable and on-demand resources. Additionally, to solve the intermittent problems of renewable energy sources, Fe-based flow batteries are used for broad-scale energy storage, and they are also very safe and have zero emissions [19]. Hydrogen-based energy storage excels in large-scale, long-term use compared to batteries, which are efficient, safe and emission-free but limited to short-to-medium-term storage due to capacity and degradation issues. With higher energy density, hydrogen enables seasonal storage to address renewable energy variability and serves as both an energy carrier and industrial feedstock. Its transportability over long distances further decouples production from consumption. While safety and cost remain challenges, advancements in solid-state storage and low-cost electrolyser materials are enhancing hydrogen storage feasibility [20].

While hydrogen offers significant potential for energy storage and generation, degradation remains a key challenge, particularly for fuel cells. Over extended operational periods, fuel cells experience performance degradation due to complex operational conditions and component ageing, which limits their commercialization. The limited lifespan of fuel cells is a significant barrier, as their performance deteriorates over time, eventually reaching a threshold where they can no longer operate efficiently [21]. Therefore, it is crucial to highlight these challenges, alongside the positive demonstrations of hydrogen technologies such as fuel cells and hydrogen refuelling stations, to ensure that the public is aware of both the potential and limitations of hydrogen-based solutions.

While the above literature examines the technological and economic aspects of hydrogen valleys in the EU, it quite often overlooks the societal impacts, like citizen awareness and engagement. For example, Frankowska et al. [22] (p. 357) concluded that the “management and coordination of Hydrogen Valleys, cooperation with stakeholders, and social aspects related to, among others, the issue of social acceptance of investments in hydrogen technologies” require additional research.

Among the literature focused specifically on citizen engagement in the hydrogen economy, the following mature publications (published a decade or so ago) can be mentioned: [23,24,25]. They contribute to the debates about citizen involvement in decisions about science and technological innovation. The studies argue that citizens should have an active role throughout the entire process of scientific research and development, and they should not be merely passive recipients of expert knowledge. The publications also highlight that the studies say relatively little about the wider role of the public and the role of different social interests in shaping the production of societal visions and technological expectations.

The topic of citizen engagement has received continued interest in the recent academic literature. “Establishing public engagement as a cornerstone of inclusive and sustainable governance of climate-intervention technologies” [26]. Citizens who are affected by a new technology should be directly involved in the planning, design, decision-making or knowledge-production process. As a result, citizens are no longer passive consumers or recipients of technology but are becoming empowered collective decision-makers.

Bănică et al. [27] conducted an interesting study on citizen engagement with sustainable energy solutions. They examined how various forms of perceived value—utilitarian, social and environmental—influence different citizen engagement behaviours.

Gordon et al. [28,29] started with the proposition that it is unclear whether consumers will be willing to adopt hydrogen-fuelled appliances for heating and cooking and demonstrate that a future research agenda should account for the interactions between acceptance factors at the attitudinal, socio-political, market, community and behavioural levels. “The analysis concludes that hydrogen is yet to permeate the public consciousness due to a lack of knowledge and awareness, owing to an absence of information dissemination” [28] (p. 1). The same authors in another paper on the ‘deep’ decarbonization of the residential sector propose a five-dimensional model of domestic hydrogen acceptance, which includes attitudinal, sociopolitical, community, market and behavioural acceptance [29].

BRIDGE, an initiative by the European Commission, supports research and innovation in smart energy systems across the EU. Citizen engagement is deemed a crucial element in the energy transition, and regular reports are published on exploring citizen engagement methodologies in European research and innovation projects [30,31,32].

Beauchampet et al. [33] studied the theory and practice of citizen engagement in the gas-free transition from a local government perspective. The authors used data collected during semi-structured interviews conducted with municipal officials to explore their understanding of citizen engagement.

Obenaus-Emler et al. [34] introduced a concept for interactive societal learning on hydrogen and carbon. To “strengthen the social licence to operate, the amalgamation of technological and wider society educational learning approaches unite to form a holistic front” [34].

Eliades et al. [35] emphasize that environmental and sustainability education is the first and most crucial stage in developing active and engaged local communities. They explored the infrastructural aspects of citizen engagement and examined the establishment of environmental education centres in Cyprus and Greece as a key step in fostering social interaction and innovation to address sustainability challenges.

The current study contributes to the academic literature through empirical research on country-specific aspects, as well as cultural and socioeconomic factors influencing citizen engagement in hydrogen projects. It also offers approaches for developing citizen engagement strategies in hydrogen valley initiatives in Cyprus and beyond.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Conceptual Foundations

From the conceptual perspective, this study was performed at a country level and focused on Cyprus citizens, who were the object of the study, their hydrogen engagement, which was the subject of the study, and the wide application of hydrogen technology in Cyprus, which is the desired state to be achieved in the future.

The term “citizen” refers to inhabitants in their capacity for taking collective actions, playing an active role in the technology implementation and undertaking responsibilities (for themselves and others) for the societal governance of the energy system.

In the context of the transformation of the economy by hydrogen technology, citizens can be categorized as stakeholders of the hydrogen transformation, through a natural extension of the classical definition of organizations’ stakeholders (“groups and individuals who can affect, or are affected by, the achievement of an organization’s mission” [36]).

In addition to the usual external/internal segmentation of the stakeholders, for hydrogen transformation projects, stakeholders can be categorized as follows:

• Societal stakeholders: citizens, communities, consumers, prosumers, clients/end users;
• Utility-related stakeholders: technology providers, producers, suppliers and contractors, market operators, aggregators, entrepreneurs;
• Third-party stakeholders: government agencies, public authorities, NGOs, academia and research institutions, project partners, investors and financial institutions, environmental organizations and media.

The categorization and shaping of stakeholders are crucial for the strategic management of the hydrogen transformation of the economy because it requires balancing and addressing a wide range of stakeholder interests. Facilitating stakeholder engagement is a prerequisite for success. Specifically, citizen engagement is increasingly recognized as a key driver of the sustainable energy transition [27].

Stakeholder engagement is an attribute of stakeholders that reflects their attitude toward the mission. Engaged stakeholders are enthusiastic, committed and ready to invest time and effort in the project’s mission, their relationship with the project and related activities.

Citizen engagement results in different forms of citizen behaviours: information seeking, proactive managing, sharing feedback, helping other users and advocating [27]. Citizen engagement is a process that evolves over time, and, thus, it may and should be managed by utility-related and third-party stakeholders.

Citizen engagement starts from zero (an attitude toward the mission has not been established yet) and can be positive or negative over time. The framework for the development of citizen engagement over time is presented in Figure 1. As a result of the information flow generated by utility-related and third-party stakeholders, citizens start to recognize that a new hydrogen technology has emerged. As the number of publications about hydrogen increases, the technology diffusion process intensifies, and citizens realize the importance of the new technology and start deciding whether they are in favour or against hydrogen technology.

The configuration of potential citizen responses can be described by the ‘social acceptance matrix’ [29,37,38]. The citizen reaction can be positive/negative over the attitude dimension and active/passive over the action dimension. The negative response (or negative engagement) can include disinterest, uncertainty, indifference, as well as apathy, resistance and opposition.

Positive engagement can take one of the “AAA” forms: awareness, action, advocacy, of which action and advocacy are active forms and awareness is passive. These forms of positive citizen engagement correspond to different levels of “Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation” [39] and citizen engagement behaviours [27] (Figure 1).

Approaching by citizens the “Engagement decision” stage (Figure 1), this facilitates the exchange of information between the public and policymakers—in terms of the model, between citizen stakeholders on one side, and utility-related stakeholders and third-party stakeholders on the other side. One-way information flow transforms into two-way communication as citizens seek more information to enhance their hydrogen awareness and begin to influence policymaking and other stakeholder decisions.

The involvement of citizens is realized through socially related engagement behaviours [27].

• Information-seeking behaviour. Citizens are focused on reducing uncertainty and better understanding hydrogen technology and related services. The examination of learning efforts and exploring sources used by correspondents to obtain information about energy and environmental problems is one of the questions in the current study survey.
• Receiving-benefits behaviour. With knowledge of hydrogen technology, citizens try to maximize the benefits related to innovations at different levels, from individual to national.
• Assisting other citizens’ behaviour. Helping behaviours stem from individuals’ sense of social responsibility toward others. People may recall difficulties they have faced with certain products or services, making them more inclined to assist others experiencing similar issues.
• Sharing-feedback behaviour. This level of engagement involves more socially oriented behaviours, such as sharing information, knowledge and experiences with others. These behaviours can also include providing feedback to providers on existing solutions, suggesting new ones, co-developing products and services and urging policymakers to adjust their approaches.
• Recommend to others behaviour. Recommending behaviour, such as influencing or advocating, reflects active engagement. It occurs when individuals share their knowledge or experiences, often through word of mouth, to shape perceptions or preferences about certain products or services. This shift decentralizes decision-making and empowers households and communities, requiring a more human-centred approach from policymakers. While this creates opportunities for greater participation and empowerment of citizens, it also poses challenges in ensuring equitable involvement and managing the influence of personal recommendations.

Value creation is the major motivational driver of citizen engagement. Citizens are engaged when they have an opportunity to add value to the hydrogen transformation. Across the value dimension, the drivers of citizen engagement are as follows:

• Utilitarian value is derived from citizens’ perception of potential financial benefits associated with the expected implementation of hydrogen technology.
• Social value refers to the benefits gained within social relationships, such as recognition from others for choosing sustainable solutions over conventional ones.
• Environmental value relates to the environmentally friendly features of hydrogen technology. It motivates citizens to prioritize collective interests over self-interest, emphasizing the broader benefits that hydrogen solutions can offer to the environment as a whole.

The value drivers of citizen engagement originate from the value added by hydrogen technology. Moreover, citizens can affect the value of hydrogen valleys through their feedback [40].

Hydrogen valleys are mainly perceived by citizens as a potential solution for reducing carbon emissions. Therefore, to enhance social acceptance, it is crucial to increase the public knowledge and understanding of hydrogen as a green energy technology [41].

A typical citizen-engagement strategy involves steps to identify and understand relevant stakeholders, define the scope and types of engagement activities, determine feasible engagement levels and establish a timeframe. To effectively facilitate citizen engagement, subsequent activities should be tailored to the specific project. Best practices include involving citizens in regular assessments of social acceptance, providing feedback and participating in the co-creation and testing of innovative hydrogen tools [30,32].

The range of hydrogen citizen-engagement tools for activation of the feedback mechanisms and inspiration of citizen collaboration are provided in Appendix A.

3.2. Data and Methodology

To assess the current state of citizen engagement with hydrogen technology in Cyprus and to propose effective engagement strategies, this study addresses the following research questions, focusing on the attitudes, views and opinions of various demographic groups (e.g., age, gender, education and employment status) in Cyprus:

• Past Participation in Sustainability Programs: Which demographic groups in Cyprus have previously participated in community or government programs dedicated to environmental sustainability? Understanding participation patterns will help identify groups that are more likely to engage in hydrogen-related initiatives and those who may need additional outreach or education.
• Standpoint on Renewable Energy Transition: What are the opinions of different demographic groups on transitioning to renewable energy sources in Cyprus? This question seeks to capture attitudes toward energy transformation, identifying both supporters and potential sceptics within the population, and assessing how these views vary across demographics.
• Awareness of Hydrogen Economy: What is the level of awareness among citizens regarding the potential benefits of a hydrogen economy for Cyprus? This question aims to gauge the current knowledge base on hydrogen’s economic, environmental and societal advantages, thereby identifying areas for informational campaigns.
• Interest in Hydrogen Transformation: How is the interest in hydrogen transformation distributed among different demographic groups? This question explores which groups are most curious about hydrogen advancements, helping to target future engagement efforts effectively.
• Information Sources on Energy and Environment: What sources do different demographic groups in Cyprus use to obtain information on energy and environmental issues? Understanding these information channels can guide the design of communication strategies tailored to the media preferences of each demographic, ensuring that hydrogen-related information reaches its intended audience effectively.

Therefore, in the present study, we followed a quantitative research methodology operationalized by a survey instrument. The target audience was defined as the population of Cyprus above 18 years old. The survey was anonymous, and participation in the survey was entirely voluntary. All participants consent to taking the survey, and they could terminate their participation at any time without negative consequences. Additionally, participants were made aware that their responses would be used solely for research purposes.

The questionnaire was divided into four parts. In the first part, the citizens were informed about the context of the study and asked to provide demographic characteristics. In the second part of the questionnaire, citizens were asked to respond to a set of questions about their attitude to green energy transition in Cyprus and hydrogen awareness. The third part focused on specific questions, which collectively allowed us to assess respondents’ current knowledge of the hydrogen economy. Finally, the fourth part collected data about potential engagement and participation in activities related to the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus.

The questionnaire was purposefully developed through several brainstorming sessions by the authors in consultation with matter experts and later assessed and adjusted through two preliminary testing rounds. We used triangulation to validate our findings on hydrogen awareness via a subject-matter-expert interview, data from self-reported assessments by citizens and the ‘hydrogen knowledge score’ (see further explanations on this later in the paper). The questions were prepared in Greek and English languages. The participants were able to choose the language of the questionnaire at their discretion. The survey included closed questions, 5-point Likert scale questions and open-ended questions to collect opinions and proposals about the hydrogen and renewable energy transformation in Cyprus. The questionnaire was made available to the citizens of Cyprus through local communication channels in digital form. The survey was conducted during the spring and summer of 2024. The collected data were analysed using StataNow/MP 18.5 for Windows.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the respondents’ profiles.

Demographics	ID	Category	Frequency	Percentage
Age group (years)	AGE	18–29	65	17.2
		30–39	85	22.48
		40–65	210	55.56
		65+	18	4.76
		Total	378	100
Gender	GEN	Male	192	50.79
		Female	186	49.21
		Total	378	100
Highest education level	EDU	Up to Secondary school	91	24.07
		Bachelor’s degree	111	29.37
		Master’s degree and above	176	46.56
		Total	378	100
Employment	EMP	Full-time	289	76.46
		Part-time	24	6.35
		Other	65	17.2
		Total	378	100
Sector of employment	SEC	Sectors with many H2 applications *	65	17.2
		Others	313	82.8
		Total	378	100
Nationality	NAT	Cypriot	332	87.83
		Other	46	12.17
		Total	378	100
Residence in Cyprus	RES	Less than 10 years	29	7.67
		More than 10 years	349	92.33
		Total	378	100

* Energy, transport, industry and construction.

provides an overview of the demographic characteristics of the 378 survey respondents. The age distribution indicates that the majority (55.56%) were between 41 and 65 years old, representing citizens considered highly productive and active influencers. Another significant portion, 39.68%, fell within the 18–40 age group, often associated with future growth potential and innovation for the country. A smaller percentage, 4.76%, were aged 65 and above, reflecting the demographic group in retirement. Gender distribution was nearly even, with 50.79% male and 49.21% female respondents.

Regarding educational attainment, 46.56% held a master’s degree or higher, 29.37% had a bachelor’s degree and 24.07% had completed secondary education. Employment status indicates that most respondents (76.46%) worked full-time, while 6.35% were part-time employees and 17.20% fell into the “Other” category (pensioners, students, housekeepers, etc.).

In terms of employment sectors, 17.2% of respondents worked in sectors with significant hydrogen (H₂) applications, including energy, transport, industry and construction, while the remaining 82.8% were employed in other sectors. The sample predominantly consisted of Cypriots (87.83%), with 12.17% identifying as non-Cypriots. Most respondents (92.33%) had lived in Cyprus for more than 10 years, while 7.67% had lived there for less than 10 years.

To address the research questions, we conducted a three-step approach to statistical analysis, particularly suited to the predominantly categorical nature of the data. First, we performed a descriptive analysis to summarize the key characteristics of the variables.

Next, we proceeded with hypothesis-testing to examine potential associations between our question of interest and the categorical variables. Using Fisher’s exact test, we assessed whether the distribution of responses to a specific question varied across categories of demographic characteristics. Fisher’s exact test, as an exact test of association, does not indicate direction or effect size; it merely determines if an association exists. A significant result leads to the rejection of the null hypothesis (H₀), indicating that the variables are not independent and suggesting the presence of an association.

In the final step, we estimated an ordered logit model to further explore the relationship, using an ordinal dependent variable in conjunction with independent categorical variables. Ordered logit models are used to estimate relationships between an ordinal dependent variable and a set of independent variables. An ordinal variable is a variable that is categorical and ordered, for instance, “Strongly oppose”, “Somewhat oppose”, “Neutral”, “Somewhat support” or “Strongly support”, which might indicate a person’s standpoint on green transition. This model is perfectly suited to our empirical analysis, as we aim to explore how different categories of demographic groups respond to our ordered categorical dependent variable of interest. In this model, an underlying score is estimated as a linear function of the independent variables and a set of cutpoints. The probability of observing outcome i corresponds to the probability that the estimated linear function, plus random error, is within the range of the cutpoints estimated for the outcome.

The ordered logit model that we estimate has the following form:

$$\mathrm{Pr}\left({outcome}_j=i\right)=\mathrm{Pr}\left({\kappa }_{i-1}<{\beta }_1{X}_{1j}+{\beta }_2{X}_{2j}+\dots +{\beta }_k{X}_{kj}+u_j\le {\kappa }_i\right)$$

(1)

where u_j is assumed to be logistically distributed in the ordered logit. Depending on the question of interest, the outcome changes. In either case, we estimate the coefficients β₁, β₂, …,β_k of our independent variables (AGE, GEN, EDU, EMP, SEC, NAT, RES) and the variable knowledge score, together with the cut points κ₁, κ₂, …, κ_(k−1), where k is the number of possible outcomes (κ₀ is taken as −∞, and κ_k is taken as +∞). j is the category of our ordered outcome. The knowledge score variable was organized as follows.

The survey contained twelve true-or-false statements related to hydrogen. The respondents were requested to choose one out of three answers: “I was aware of this/true”; “I did not know that/not sure it is true”; “It is false”. Each correct answer increased the knowledge score by 2 points, the non-confident answer increased the score by 1 point, and each wrong answer changed the score by 0 points. Thus, the lowest score indicates that the respondent is less likely to know, while the highest score indicates better knowledge. The potential maximum hydrogen knowledge score was 24 points (all answers are correct), and the potential minimum score was 0 points (all answers are wrong). Descriptive statistics of the hydrogen knowledge score are provided in Appendix C.

Outcome is defined as any possible answer that the respondent can give [42] (see Long and Freese (2014, chap. 7) for a discussion of models for ordinal outcomes). For example, in 5-point Likert scale questions, the number of possible outcomes is 5. The coefficients and cutpoints were estimated using maximum likelihood. In our estimations, we did not have a constant, because the effect was absorbed into the cutpoints.

The estimation began by tabulating the dependent variable. Category i = 1 is defined as the minimum value of the variable, i = 2 as the next ordered value, and so on, for the empirically determined k categories. The probability of a given observation for ordered logit is given by:

$$\begin{gathered} p_{ij}=\mathrm{Pr}\left(y_j=i\right)=\mathrm{Pr}\left({\kappa }_{i-1}<X_j\beta +u\le {\kappa }_i\right) \\ ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+\mathrm{e}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{p}(-{\kappa }_i+X_j\beta )}}-{\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+\exp \left(-{\kappa }_{i-1}+X_j\beta \right)}} \end{gathered}$$

(2)

To interpret the impact of a categorical independent variable (e.g., gender) on the probability of different outcomes of the ordered dependent variable, we estimated average marginal effects. Particularly, we estimated how the predicted probabilities changed when a demographic variable such as gender changes from 0 (male) to 1 (female), while holding other variables constant. Our results provide the average predicted probabilities for each category (possible outcome) of our dependent variable for males and females.

This model allowed us to confirm our initial findings and to predict classification probabilities across the different categories, thus providing a more detailed understanding of the associations identified.

4. Results

In this subsection, we present the results of our descriptive analysis, along with the average predicted probabilities derived from the estimation of an ordered logit model, which is well suited for analysing the qualitative data in our study.

Past Participation in Sustainability Programs. As regards the first research question—which demographic groups in Cyprus have previously participated in community or government programs dedicated to environmental sustainability?—the descriptive statistics show that 14.8% of respondents had such experience. Figure A1 in Appendix B presents pie charts depicting the distribution of respondents across various demographic groups who reported participation in such programs. The descriptive statistics reveal that the individuals most likely to have such experience are aged between 40 and 65 (42.86%), female (55.36%), highly educated (53.57%), employed in non-related sectors (64.29%) and Cypriots (85.71%). The pie charts presented in Figure A1 in Appendix B show that those employed in non-related sectors and Cypriots are more active in participating in such kinds of programs, but the results from our ordered logit estimation reveal the opposite. Before proceeding with the estimation of the ordered logit model, we formulated and tested seven corresponding null hypotheses for those seven demographic groups.

For seven demographic factors (age group, gender, education level, employment status, sector of employment, nationality and residence in Cyprus), we formulated and tested seven corresponding null hypotheses:

H₀: A1–A7. 

There is no association between participation in environmental programs and the respective demographic factor.

Based on the p-values from Fisher’s exact test for association, presented in

Table A1. p-Values for Fisher’s exact test for association.

The Null Hypothesis	AGE	GEN	EDU	EMP	SEC	NAT	RES
H0: A1–A7	0.069 *	0.385	0.538	0.269	0.000 ***	0.657	0.056 *
H0: B1–B7	0.015 **	0.332	0.005 ***	0.009 ***	0.444	0.331	0.775
H0: C3–C9	0.090 *	0.071 *	0.009 ***	0.832	0.000 ***	0.000 ***	0.000 ***
H0: D1–D7	0.412	0.020 **	0.250	0.464	0.006 ***	0.798	0.119
H0: E1–E7	0.320	0.038 **	0.105	0.188	0.100 *	0.752	0.204

Note: *** p < 0.01, ** p < 0.05, * p < 0.1.

in Appendix B, an association was identified—resulting in the rejection of the null hypothesis—for only three demographic factors: age group (at 5% significance level), sector of employment (at 1% significance level) and residence in Cyprus (at 5% significance level). Small p-values indicate that the participation in environmental programs varies across respondents, and the difference is strongly statistically significant for those who are employed in a related sector with those who are not employed in the related sector. Moreover, participation in environmental programs differs across different age groups. Finally, those who have lived more than 10 years in Cyprus reply differently from those who live in Cyprus for less than 10 years, and this difference is statistically significant.

Through the application of the logit model, we quantified the effect of these demographic factors on participation in community or government programs dedicated to environmental sustainability. The fractions of citizens with or without experience of participation in environmental programs for each demographic group are presented in

Table 2. Fractions of citizens participated in environmental programs by demographic groups.

Demographic Factor	Category	Yes	No
Age Group	18–29	0.23	0.77
	30–39	0.14	0.86
	40–65	0.12	0.88
	65+	0.13	0.87
Sector of employment	With many H2 applications	0.27	0.73
	Others	0.12	0.88
Residence in Cyprus	Less 10 years	0.26	0.74
	More 10 years	0.14	0.86

.

From Table 2 and Figure 2, we observe the following trends with respect to the past participation in environmental programs:

• Younger individuals, especially those in the 18–29 age group, show higher participation rates (23%) in environmental programs compared to older age groups.
• People working in sectors related to hydrogen (H₂) are more likely to participate (27%). This may suggest that individuals having a better understanding of environmental issues are more willing to support sustainability initiatives.
• Those who have lived in Cyprus for less than 10 years are more active in participating (26%).

Figure 2. Predictive margins of demographic groups participated in environmental programs with a 95% confidence interval.

Figure 2. Predictive margins of demographic groups participated in environmental programs with a 95% confidence interval.

Descriptive statistics serve as an essential starting point but fall short in capturing the complex relationships inherent in ordered outcomes. For example, the initial descriptive analysis does not account for the simultaneous influence of multiple variables or the ordered nature of the dependent variable. Unlike descriptive statistics, the ordered logit model captures the ordered structure of the dependent variable and accounts for covariate effects. The model that we estimate provides a more robust and representative analysis that is both statistically and practically meaningful.

Standpoint on Renewable Energy Transition. The second research question—what are the opinions of different demographic groups on transitioning to renewable energy sources in Cyprus?—aims to provide insights into the current views of citizens in Cyprus on the green economy transition.

The descriptive statistics suggest a broad consensus among respondents in favour of renewable energy in Cyprus, with 89.95% expressing supportive views. Notably, more than half the respondents (57.41%) strongly supported the transition, indicating firm backing for a green economy in Cyprus. Meanwhile, 9.52% of respondents were neutral, and 0.53% strongly opposed to the transition. Figure A2 in Appendix B shows the corresponding pie chart for the whole population, while Figure A3 shows seven different pie charts for each demographic group.

In a similar way to the previous research question, the following seven null hypotheses for the various demographic factors were examined:

H₀:B1–B7. 

There is no association between the standpoint on renewable energy transition and the respective demographic factor.

The results of the hypothesis testing, shown in Table A1 in Appendix B, indicate that three demographic factors—age group, education level and employment status—are statistically significant at the 5% significance level (age group) and 1% significance level (education and employment status). This suggests that these factors are meaningfully associated with individuals’ standpoints on the renewable energy transition in Cyprus. For the remaining demographic factors, we failed to reject the null hypothesis, meaning there is not enough evidence to conclude an association between these factors and citizens’ standpoints on renewable energy.

To validate the insights gathered from the descriptive statistics, we extended our analysis by applying an ordered logit model. This approach allows us to examine how demographic factors influence respondents’ levels of support for the renewable energy transition in a more detailed way. The distribution of respondents’ views, categorized by levels of support, is presented as fractions derived from the ordered logit regression in

Table 3. Citizens’ opinions on renewable energy transition by demographic groups.

Demographic Factor	Category	Strongly Oppose	Neutral	Somewhat Support	Strongly Support
Age Group	18–29	0.01	0.15	0.40	0.44
	30–39	0.00	0.06	0.25	0.69
	40–65	0.01	0.10	0.34	0.56
	65+	0.00	0.07	0.27	0.66
Highest education level	Up to Secondary school	0.01	0.11	0.36	0.52
	Bachelor’s degree	0.01	0.12	0.38	0.49
	Master’s degree and above	0.00	0.07	0.27	0.65
Employment	Full-time	0.00	0.09	0.31	0.60
	Part-time	0.01	0.17	0.41	0.41
	Other	0.01	0.11	0.36	0.53

.

From Figure 3 and the data in Table 3, which provide a breakdown of citizens’ opinions across levels of support on renewable energy transition, we observe the following trends:

• Respondents in the age group 30–39 show the highest strong support (69%) among age groups, suggesting middle-aged individuals may be more enthusiastic about renewable energy and more concerned about the long-term sustainable development of the country.
• The data evidence that support for renewable energy increases with education level. Respondents with a master’s degree or above show the highest level of strong support (65%).
• Respondents in full-time employment show the highest level of strong support (60%). This suggests that they may feel more socially defended and with longer plans for stable development.

Figure 3. Predictive margins of demographic groups regarding their standpoint on renewable energy transition with a 95% confidence interval.

Figure 3. Predictive margins of demographic groups regarding their standpoint on renewable energy transition with a 95% confidence interval.

In sum, the largest support for renewable energy transition comes from middle-aged, more educated and fully employed individuals.

Awareness of Hydrogen Economy. Our survey was purposefully built and included some pioneering elements, not found, to the best of our knowledge, in research by others. In particular, our research question on hydrogen awareness was approached from two perspectives. Respondents were first asked to answer two self-assessment questions about their familiarity with the hydrogen economy overall and their awareness of the specific benefits of introducing hydrogen in Cyprus. This helped capture respondents’ subjective perceptions of their knowledge of the topic. The survey then included twelve true-or-false statements related to hydrogen, which respondents were required to evaluate. These statements served as a test of respondents’ actual knowledge, allowing for a more objective assessment by constructing a cumulative “hydrogen knowledge score” variable. This is our pioneering approach, which, to our knowledge, has not been implemented in any other hydrogen awareness surveys.

We continued the analysis by setting two null hypotheses:

H₀:C1. 

There is no association between awareness of a hydrogen economy and the hydrogen knowledge score.

H₀:C2. 

There is no association between awareness of the specific benefits of introducing hydrogen in Cyprus and the hydrogen knowledge score.

Both hypotheses were rejected by the application of Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients. For both cases, the correlation coefficients are equal to 0.43, while the p-values for these hypotheses are 0, indicating that we strongly reject the null hypothesis that those two variables are independent.

Descriptive statistics in Figure A4 in Appendix B reveal that 61.90% of respondents were unfamiliar with the concept of a hydrogen economy, while 33.07% reported being somewhat familiar, and only 5.03% considered themselves very familiar. Regarding the awareness of the potential benefits of a hydrogen economy specifically for Cyprus, 53.97% of respondents indicated that they are unaware of these advantages, 21.96% were uncertain and 24.07% believed they were well informed. These results are presented in Figure A5 in Appendix B.

In the next step of the analysis, the following seven null hypotheses for the various demographic factors were examined:

H₀:C3–C9. 

There is no association between awareness of the hydrogen economy and the respective demographic factor.

Based on the results of p-values for Fisher’s exact test for association, shown in Table A1 in Appendix B, we defined that six demographic factors were statistically significant. These demographic factors were age and gender—significant at 10% significance level; and education level, sector of employment, nationality and years of residence in Cyprus—significant at 1% significance level.

Table 4. Citizens’ self-assessment of hydrogen economy awareness.

Demographic Factor	Category	Not Familiar at All	Somewhat Familiar	Very Familiar
Age Group	18–29	0.61	0.34	0.05
	30–39	0.64	0.32	0.05
	40–65	0.62	0.33	0.05
	65+	0.50	0.42	0.08
Gender	Male	0.58	0.36	0.06
	Female	0.65	0.31	0.04
Highest education level	Up to Secondary school	0.73	0.24	0.03
	Bachelor’s degree	0.65	0.31	0.04
	Master’s degree and above	0.53	0.40	0.07
Sector of employment	With many H2 applications	0.40	0.49	0.11
	Others	0.66	0.30	0.04
Nationality	Cypriot	0.63	0.33	0.04
	Other	0.49	0.43	0.08
Residence in Cyprus	Less 10 years	0.35	0.52	0.13
	More 10 years	0.63	0.32	0.04

, which is based on an analysis of the ordered logistic model, provides a breakdown of citizens’ familiarity with the hydrogen economy across various demographic groups and highlights specific groups with lower awareness, suggesting that targeted educational efforts could be beneficial in raising awareness about the hydrogen economy across the population.

The main findings from Table 4 and Figure 4 can be summarized as follows:

• The middle-aged respondents (30–39) reported the greatest unfamiliarity, with 64% not familiar at all.
• Females reported a higher rate of unfamiliarity (65% not familiar) compared to males (58%).
• Respondents with a lower level of education showed the least familiarity, with 73% indicating they were not familiar at all. Familiarity improved slightly among those with higher education levels, with 7% of those holding a master’s degree or higher considering themselves very familiar.
• Respondents in other sectors showed less familiarity, with 66% not familiar at all. In contrast, those working in fields with many hydrogen applications reported higher familiarity levels, with 11% being very familiar.
• Cypriots showed slightly more unfamiliarity (63% not familiar) compared to others (49%). However, the “very familiar” percentages are comparable for both groups.
• Those who had resided in Cyprus for more than 10 years were more unfamiliar (63% not familiar) than those who had lived there for less than 10 years (35% not familiar), although recent residents reported a higher “somewhat familiar” rate at 52%.

Figure 4. Predictive margins of demographic groups for their self-assessment of hydrogen economy awareness with a 95% confidence interval.

Figure 4. Predictive margins of demographic groups for their self-assessment of hydrogen economy awareness with a 95% confidence interval.

Interest in Hydrogen Transformation. To have insights for engagement strategy design, the respondents were requested to express their willingness to join in some discussions or other activities related to the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus.

From the descriptive statistics shown in Figure A6 in Appendix B, we see that 51.85% of respondents were “somewhat likely”, 27.25% were “very likely” and only 20.90% of respondents answered that they were “not likely” to join in discussions or activities related to the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus.

To examine further, we studied whether their answer depended on their demographic characteristics. The following seven null hypotheses for the various demographic factors were examined:

H₀:D1–D7. 

There is no association between willingness to participate in the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus and the respective demographic factor.

Based on the exact Fisher’s test, the answer of respondents to this question was associated with gender (at 5% significance level) and with the employment sector of the respondents (at 1% significance level), as presented in Table A1 in Appendix B. This indicates that the answer of respondents mainly varied based on their gender and employment sector, and the rest of their characteristics, such as age or education, did not influence their answers.

Table 5. Citizens’ interest in participating in the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus.

Demographic Factor	Category	Not Likely	Somewhat Likely	Very Likely
Gender	Male	0.17	0.51	0.32
	Female	0.25	0.53	0.23
Sector of employment	With many H2 applications	0.13	0.48	0.39
	Others	0.22	0.53	0.25

and Figure 5 provide the results of the ordered logit model. The table illustrates citizens’ likelihood of participating in the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus, segmented by gender and sector of employment.

The main trends concerning potential involvement in the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus are as follows:

• Males were more likely to participate, with 32% indicating they were very likely, compared to 23% of females. Additionally, fewer males (17%) were not likely to participate, while 25% of females fell into this category.
• Those employed in sectors with many hydrogen applications showed the highest likelihood of participation, with 39% being very likely and only 13% not likely to participate.

Information Sources on Energy and Environment: Respondents were asked to indicate the sources they use to obtain information about energy and environmental issues. Several options were provided, including “Through the Internet and/or social media”, “Through books and/or printed press”, “Through work”, “Through studies/degree” and “Others”. The respondents could select multiple options.

The most commonly selected source was “Through the Internet and/or social media”, accounting for 65.28% of the total choices. This was followed by “Through books and/or printed press” (14.19%) and “Through work” (11.35%); see Figure A7 in Appendix B.

In Figure A8, in Appendix B, we see that a strong majority of respondents (71.62%) gave positive responses to the question, “Are you interested in learning about hydrogen in the energy transition?”. In contrast, only 8.22% indicated a lack of interest. Additionally, 20.16% of respondents were undecided, representing a group that should be targeted by engagement strategies.

The following seven null hypotheses on the associations of various demographic factors were examined:

H₀:E1–E7. 

There is no association between interest in knowing about hydrogen and the respective demographic factor.

Based on the results of p-values for Fisher’s exact test for association, shown in Table A1 in Appendix B, the following demographic factors were defined as significant: gender at 5% significance level and sector of employment at 10% significance level.

The results of the ordered logit regression for these demographic factors are presented in

Table 6. Citizens’ interest in knowing about hydrogen.

Demographic Factor	Category	Not Likely	Somewhat Likely	Very Likely
Gender	Male	0.08	0.19	0.73
	Female	0.09	0.21	0.70
Sector of employment	With many H2 applications	0.06	0.15	0.79
	Others	0.09	0.21	0.70

and Figure 6.

The main findings regarding citizens’ interest in knowing about hydrogen can be summarized as follows:

• Male respondents exhibited slightly higher interest levels in the “Very Likely” category.
• Individuals employed in sectors with many hydrogen applications showed the highest likelihood of interest in learning about hydrogen (79% “Very Likely”).

The results of the survey data analysis offer valuable insights into citizen engagement regarding the development of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus. These findings shed light on the public’s interest, awareness and potential involvement in this innovative project, highlighting key demographic factors that influence their engagement levels. By understanding these insights, policymakers and stakeholders can tailor their strategies to effectively involve citizens, foster collaboration and promote the adoption of hydrogen technologies within the region.

5. Discussion

The results of the hydrogen-related survey conducted among Cypriot citizens indicate a generally positive public perception of hydrogen technology as a pivotal component of the energy transition. The findings show that citizen willingness to engage in discussions or activities related to the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus was distributed as follows: 25% of citizens were very likely to participate; 55% were somewhat likely to participate; and 20% were unlikely to participate. With respect to the green energy transition, approximately 60% of citizens across various demographic groups strongly endorsed the green energy transition, while about 30% were somewhat supportive, and only 10% were neutral or negative.

The survey further highlights a substantial willingness to participate in future actions related to the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus. Specifically, about 30% of respondents were very likely to participate, around 50% were somewhat likely and 20% were unlikely to contribute.

Figure 7 summarizes the statistically significant associations between demographic factors and various aspects of citizen engagement with hydrogen in Cyprus. The results indicate that age (AGE), gender (GEN) and sector of employment (SEC) show the highest number of associations (three to four each), while education (EDU) and residence in Cyprus (RES) have two associations each. In contrast, employment status (EMP) and nationality (NAT) are associated with only one aspect each.

However, citizen engagement remains a critical prerequisite for establishing a hydrogen valley in Cyprus and requires ongoing attention. The questionnaire design allows temporal analysis, examining past experience, current standpoints and readiness for future actions. In

Table 7. Citizens’ attitude to a hydrogen valley in Cyprus.

Indicator	Past participation in sustainability programs	Current standpoint on green energy transition	Future involvement with a hydrogen valley
Active Demographic Group	Young individuals, employed in sectors with many H2 applications, recent Cyprus residents	Middle-aged, educated, fully employed individuals	Male individuals, employed in sectors with many H2 applications

, the survey results are aligned with the framework for the development of citizen engagement over time, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Most of the population had reached the “Engagement decision” stage and had decided positively regarding hydrogen in Cyprus. However, survey data highlight that, among the three forms of engagement (“Advocacy”, “Action” and “Awareness”), citizens of Cyprus are primarily engaged in the weakest form, “Awareness”, with the predominant behaviour being “Seeking information”.

One of the open-ended questions in the survey invited respondents to submit questions regarding hydrogen technologies or the hydrogen economy about which they would like more information. Many questions focused on the following:

• What hydrogen technology and hydrogen economy are—People want to know the basics of hydrogen as an energy source and how it functions within an economy.
• Safety and environmental impact—Concerns about how safe hydrogen technology is for use in households, vehicles and energy production.
• Cost and economic impact—Questions about the cost of hydrogen production, its affordability and whether it is economically advantageous compared to other renewable energy sources.
• Practical applications—Inquiries into how hydrogen can be applied in Cyprus, for households, vehicles or broader industries.
• Benefits over other technologies—Curiosity about the advantages of hydrogen over other renewable energy sources and traditional fuels.
• Government support and subsidies—Interest in knowing if there will be financial support from the government or the EU to encourage the use of hydrogen technology in Cyprus.

These insights suggest that hydrogen engagement strategies in Cyprus should focus on population segments with limited awareness of hydrogen technology—particularly middle-aged individuals, women, those with lower education levels and long-term residents (over 10 years). Efforts should aim to provide sufficient information about hydrogen to enable these groups to make informed decisions, either positively or negatively, regarding their engagement.

Additionally, tailored strategies should also target demographic groups of active supporters (as outlined in Table 7) to elevate them to higher forms of engagement. The motivational drivers for their engagement could include the utilitarian, social and environmental value added by hydrogen technology, as well as the value added by their active participation in hydrogen-related initiatives.

According to public opinion, the main potential challenges to introducing a hydrogen valley in Cyprus can be categorized into three groups, along with the percentage of total responses:

• Frequently mentioned challenges (20%): Public concerns about the safety of hydrogen and lack of industrial infrastructure.
• Occasionally mentioned challenges (14%): Lack of general acceptance and awareness, lack of expertise and human resources and insufficient knowledge to judge.
• Infrequently mentioned challenges (11%): The high cost of the technology and availability of funding.

These responses highlight that safety concerns, infrastructure gaps and financial limitations, as well as a general need for increased awareness, expertise and public acceptance of hydrogen technologies in Cyprus should be addressed by engagement strategies.

In addition, respondents were directly invited to provide suggestions for citizen engagement in the hydrogen valley pilot in Cyprus. The suggestions for designing citizen engagement strategies, provided in response to this open-ended question, can be grouped as follows:

• Information and Education: A significant portion of the responses emphasized the need for more public information and education. This includes informing citizens about the benefits and potential of hydrogen energy, especially regarding its role in the green economy, and dispelling any uncertainties about its safety and application.
• Incentives for Participation: Many respondents believe that citizens need incentives to engage with the project. These could include reduced energy costs or other economic benefits, such as job opportunities or housing-related perks.
• Pilot Projects and Demonstrations: Several responses suggest starting with pilot programs or trials in local communities. This would give citizens a tangible demonstration of the potential benefits and allow them to assess the project first-hand before committing further. The results of these pilot projects should then be shared with the public.
• Workforce Development: Some respondents highlighted the importance of creating new job opportunities, especially for young people and professionals in fields related to hydrogen technology.
• Public Consultations and Involvement: There were calls for increased citizen involvement in the planning and execution stages, through consultation processes and participatory research. This would ensure that the community’s needs and concerns are addressed in the development of the hydrogen valley.

Barriers to citizen engagement with hydrogen technology in Cyprus arise from social, economic, cultural and technical factors. A lack of public awareness and knowledge about hydrogen’s benefits, coupled with perceived safety concerns, fosters scepticism and fear. These issues can be addressed through targeted public education campaigns, simplifying technical information and conducting safety demonstrations to build trust. Additionally, showcasing successful hydrogen projects and involving trusted community figures can help dispel misconceptions and promote confidence.

Economic barriers, such as the high costs of adopting hydrogen technologies and limited financial incentives, as well as infrastructure gaps, can be mitigated by introducing subsidies, tax benefits and financing options to make hydrogen more accessible. Investments in developing a robust hydrogen infrastructure, such as fuelling stations and production facilities, are essential to improve practicality. Addressing cultural resistance requires promoting the societal and environmental benefits of hydrogen while engaging citizens in decision-making to foster a sense of ownership. Rebuilding trust in government institutions through transparency and consistent communication, coupled with participatory approaches that include local communities, can enhance public support and drive the adoption of hydrogen technology.

To make the insights into the current status of citizen engagement in hydrogen technology in Cyprus, as revealed by the study, actionable, and to further effectively facilitate citizen engagement, appropriate engagement tools should be used. Appendix A provides sets of citizen engagement tools for fostering awareness and education, activating feedback mechanisms and inspiring citizens to collaborate.

Based on insights into the current status of citizen engagement in hydrogen technology in Cyprus, particularly taking into account that the internet and social media are the main sources of information, the following top 10 engagement tools are identified by authors as the most appropriate for fostering citizens’ awareness and education about hydrogen in Cyprus:

• Informational websites with educational content, news and project updates;
• Awareness campaigns on social network platforms;
• YouTube channels focused on hydrogen education and awareness;
• Virtual workshops where citizens learn about hydrogen and ask questions;
• Open days at hydrogen production plants, research labs or project sites;
• Demonstrations of showcases (e.g., fuel cells and hydrogen refuelling stations);
• Exhibitions at community events, science fairs or museums;
• Educational apps with interactive content (quizzes, videos and simulations) to engage younger citizens in particular;
• Environmental education centres as an integral part of the educational system;
• University programs, including distance-learning programs, to teach young citizens about hydrogen energy.

Regarding tailored engagement strategies for active supporters of hydrogen in Cyprus, the following Top 10 engagement tools have been identified by authors to elevate their involvement to the ‘Action’ and ‘Advocacy’ levels of engagement by activating feedback mechanisms and inspiring citizen collaboration:

• Discussions and interviews with small focus groups to gather in-depth feedback;
• Feedback forms integrated into specialized websites;
• Feedback sessions incorporated into workshops and seminars;
• Public forums to discuss concerns and engage with project representatives;
• Open innovation portals to propose ideas and refine concepts collectively;
• Citizen advisory committees to co-develop strategies and solutions;
• Community councils to ensure collaboration and shared decision-making;
• Awards for innovative hydrogen ideas and collaboration;
• Citizen portals to engage with project leaders and contribute ideas;
• Pilot programs to involve citizens in testing new hydrogen solutions.

To be effective, citizen engagement strategies should not be a one-time exercise. As shown in Figure 1, the development of citizen engagement is an ongoing process that evolves over time. Therefore, engagement strategies must be dynamic as well. The desired outcome of these strategies—transitioning citizens from being merely passive recipients to becoming co-creators, active participants and co-owners of hydrogen projects—can be achieved only through the continuous improvement of engagement strategies.

The ordered logit model assumes the proportional odds (or parallel lines) assumption. If this assumption is violated, then we would have to estimate the generalized ordered logit model. To ensure the robustness of the analysis, a sensitivity check was conducted using the Brant test. The null hypothesis of the Brant test is that the odds ratios are equal across the categories of the outcome variable, which means that the parallel odds assumption holds. Given that we failed to reject the null hypothesis, this indicates the selection of the estimating ordered logit model is appropriate and is confirmed by the results of the Brant test.

While this study provides valuable insights into public attitudes toward hydrogen energy in Cyprus, it also has some limitations that need to be further addressed in future research. First of all, the survey captures opinions at a specific moment, which may not reflect evolving attitudes as awareness of hydrogen technologies grows or policies change. Public attitudes toward hydrogen should be further assessed to ensure that citizen engagement is dynamically embedded in the decision-making mechanism. Second, the results may not be easily comparable to other countries due to Cyprus’s unique socio-economic, political and geographic conditions. In broad terms, strategies for citizen hydrogen engagement should include two components: one component related to the technology, which is common for various countries, and the second one is a country-specific component. Thus, future similar country-specific studies focusing on citizen engagement in the implementation of hydrogen technology would help to overcome this limitation and crystalize both components.

6. Conclusions

This study demonstrates a strong public inclination toward supporting the green energy transition in Cyprus, with approximately 80% of the population potentially willing to participate in the creation of a hydrogen valley in Cyprus. However, about 75% of the population across various demographic groups lacks full awareness of the advantages and risks of hydrogen technology and expresses a desire for more information about it. This study highlights that among the three “AAA” forms of engagement (advocacy, action, awareness), most of the population is engaged through the weakest form, “Awareness”, with their primary behaviour being “seeking information”.

In addition, to maximize the societal impact of hydrogen implementation, it is imperative that policymakers integrate technological deployment with coordinated and dynamic engagement frameworks. These frameworks must emphasize utilitarian, social and environmental value creation to build public trust and sustained participation. By addressing the interplay between technological adoption and citizen involvement, Cyprus can position itself as a model for achieving carbon neutrality through hydrogen technology.

For future research, the authors invite scholars to perform similar country-specific studies focusing on citizen engagement in the implementation of hydrogen technology in specific countries. Such academic contributions can help achieve carbon neutrality in Europe by 2050 and advance hydrogen technology, which is one of the key innovations for a successful clean energy transition in Europe.