Effect of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) Measures on Active Living and Fear of Crime
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
2.2. Fear of Crime
2.3. Fear of Crime in Relation to Health
3. Conceptual Framework, Research Questions, and Hypotheses
(1) Do CPTED Measures Mitigate Residents’ Fear of Crime?
(2) Do CPTED Measures Encourage Residents’ Walking Activities?
4. Setting and Method
4.1. Context
4.2. Survey Design and Data
4.3. Measures and Descriptive Statistics
4.4. Behavioral Modeling
5. Results
6. Implications and Conclusions
6.1. Implications
6.2. Shortcomings and Future Research
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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Variables | Operational Definitions | |
---|---|---|
Underlying Construct | ||
Fear of crime | I1: Frightened to pass through narrow alleys | |
I2: Surprised if there’s someone on an almost deserted street | ||
I3: Desire to detour if approaching a narrow alley | ||
Endogenous Variables | ||
Walking frequency | In a typical week, how many times do you walk in your neighborhood? | |
ln (Walking frequency) | Natural log-transformed of walking frequency plus 1 | |
Exogenous Variables | ||
CPTED | CPTED (0 = not implemented; 1 = implemented) | |
Access control | CCTV | There are sufficient CCTVs around the location (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) |
Natural surveillance | Street lighting | Street lighting around the location is sufficiently bright (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) |
Fence removal | Fence removal (0 = no; 1 = yes) | |
Transparent fence | Presence of transparent fence (0 = no; 1 = yes) | |
Territoriality | Mural | Presence of mural (0 = no; 1 = yes) |
Paving pattern | Paving patterns or colors (0 = no; 1 = yes) | |
Activity support | Community park | Presence of community park (0 = no; 1 = yes) |
Community center | Presence of community center (0 = no; 1 = yes) | |
Maintenance | Maintenance | Well maintained without vandalism or graffiti (0 = no; 1 = yes) |
Occupied | Well-occupied area without any unused building or space (0 = no; 1 = yes) | |
Socioeconomic status | Male | Gender (0 = female; 1 = male) |
Age | Resident’s age | |
Residence | Residence period (month) | |
ln (Residence) | Natural log-transformed residence period | |
Owner | Home ownership (0 = rent or lease; 1 = ownership) | |
College | Educational level (0 = high school or lower; 1 = college or higher degree) | |
High income | High monthly household income (>$5000) (0 = otherwise; 1 = yes) | |
Middle income (base) | Middle monthly household income ($2000–5000) (0 = otherwise; 1 = yes) | |
Low income | Low monthly household income (<$2000) (0 = otherwise; 1 = yes) |
Variables | Total | CPTED Mean (SD) | Non-CPTED Mean (SD) | Diff. | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N | Mean (SD) | Min. | Max. | |||||
Fear of crime | I1 | 617 | 2.56 (1.21) | 1 | 5 | 2.46 (1.16) | 2.67 (1.26) | −0.21 * |
I2 | 617 | 2.76 (1.26) | 1 | 5 | 2.76 (1.23) | 2.77 (1.29) | −0.01 | |
I3 | 617 | 2.67 (1.29) | 1 | 5 | 2.62 (1.27) | 2.71 (1.30) | −0.10 | |
Walking frequency | 617 | 7.00 (4.66) | 0 | 70 | 6.97 (4.37) | 7.03 (4.93) | −0.05 | |
ln (Walking frequency) | 617 | 1.98 (0.42) | 0 | 4.26 | 1.98 (0.43) | 1.99 (0.40) | −0.01 | |
CPTED | 617 | 0.50 | 0 | 1 | ||||
Access control | CCTV | 617 | 2.83 (1.06) | 1 | 5 | 2.97 (1.09) | 2.69 (1.01) | 0.28 * |
Natural surveillance | Street lighting | 617 | 3.05 (1.01) | 1 | 5 | 3.17 (1.03) | 2.92 (0.99) | 0.25 * |
Fence removal | 612 | 0.23 | 0 | 1 | 0.38 | 0.09 | 0.30 * | |
Transparent fence | 612 | 0.22 | 0 | 1 | 0.29 | 0.15 | 0.14 * | |
Territoriality | Mural | 612 | 0.22 | 0 | 1 | 0.33 | 0.11 | 0.22 * |
Paving pattern | 612 | 0.38 | 0 | 1 | 0.70 | 0.06 | 0.64 * | |
Activity support | Community park | 612 | 0.22 | 0 | 1 | 0.32 | 0.11 | 0.21 * |
Community center | 612 | 0.22 | 0 | 1 | 0.30 | 0.14 | 0.16 * | |
Maintenance | Maintenance | 612 | 0.98 | 0 | 1 | 1.00 | 0.95 | 0.05 * |
Occupied | 612 | 0.94 | 0 | 1 | 0.97 | 0.91 | 0.06 * | |
Socioeconomic status | Male | 610 | 0.41 | 0 | 1 | 0.42 | 0.40 | 0.02 |
Age | 598 | 48.41 (19.66) | 11 | 92 | 51.17 (18.64) | 45.72 (20.28) | 5.45 * | |
Residence | 571 | 162.1 (165.4) | 1 | 912 | 157.3 (151.5) | 168.0 (178.3) | −21.0 | |
ln (Residence) | 571 | 4.47 (1.29) | 0 | 6.82 | 4.50 (1.21) | 4.45 (1.38) | 0.05 | |
Owner | 516 | 0.61 | 0 | 1 | 0.61 | 0.61 | 0.00 | |
College | 481 | 0.41 | 0 | 1 | 0.43 | 0.40 | 0.03 | |
High income | 384 | 0.11 | 0 | 1 | 0.14 | 0.08 | 0.06 | |
Mid income | 384 | 0.42 | 0 | 1 | 0.40 | 0.44 | −0.04 | |
Low income | 384 | 0.48 | 0 | 1 | 0.47 | 0.49 | −0.02 |
Model 1: CFA (n = 617) | Model 2: SEM (n = 494) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Coef. | (Robust SE) | p-Value | Coef. | (Robust SE) | p-Value | |
Measurement model | ||||||
Latent variable: Fear of crime | ||||||
I1: Frightened to pass through narrow alleys | 1.000 | 1.000 | ||||
I2: Surprised if there’s someone on an almost deserted street | 0.911 ** | (0.067) | 0.000 | 0.986 ** | (0.063) | 0.000 |
I3: Desire to detour if approaching a narrow alley | 0.800 ** | (0.062) | 0.000 | 0.853 ** | (0.069) | 0.000 |
Structural model | ||||||
Exogenous variable: Fear of crime | ||||||
CPTED | 0.012 | (0.139) | 0.929 | |||
CCTV | −0.197 ** | (0.055) | 0.000 | |||
Street lighting | −0.269 ** | (0.043) | 0.000 | |||
Fence removal | −0.107 | (0.114) | 0.347 | |||
Transparent fence | 0.050 | (0.115) | 0.665 | |||
Mural | 0.132 | (0.111) | 0.238 | |||
Paving pattern | 0.066 | (0.141) | 0.640 | |||
Community park | −0.219 † | (0.126) | 0.081 | |||
Community center | 0.180 | (0.120) | 0.132 | |||
Maintenance | −0.457 * | (0.223) | 0.040 | |||
Occupied | 0.110 | (0.233) | 0.636 | |||
Male | −0.724 ** | (0.088) | 0.000 | |||
Age | 0.003 | (0.003) | 0.353 | |||
ln (Residence) | 0.025 | (0.041) | 0.551 | |||
Owner | 0.003 | (0.103) | 0.973 | |||
Exogenous variable: ln (Walking frequency) | ||||||
Fear of crime | −0.065 ** | (0.024) | 0.008 | |||
CPTED | −0.026 | (0.052) | 0.613 | |||
CCTV | 0.015 | (0.016) | 0.340 | |||
Street lighting | −0.053 * | (0.021) | 0.015 | |||
Fence removal | 0.057 | (0.049) | 0.244 | |||
Transparent fence | 0.034 | (0.056) | 0.549 | |||
Mural | 0.046 | (0.053) | 0.388 | |||
Paving pattern | −0.038 | (0.052) | 0.459 | |||
Community park | −0.052 | (0.048) | 0.281 | |||
Community center | 0.038 | (0.057) | 0.506 | |||
Maintenance | 0.042 | (0.043) | 0.332 | |||
Occupied | 0.108 ** | (0.040) | 0.007 | |||
Male | −0.048 | (0.038) | 0.202 | |||
Age | −0.002 * | (0.001) | 0.039 | |||
ln (Residence) | 0.013 | (0.016) | 0.407 | |||
Owner | 0.043 | (0.033) | 0.198 | |||
Constant | 1.874 ** | (0.107) | 0.000 | |||
(32) | 48.144 | 0.033 | ||||
RMSEA | 0.032 | |||||
CFI | 0.977 | |||||
TLI | 0.952 | |||||
SRMR | 0.015 |
Indirect Effects | Direct Effects on Walking Frequency | Total Effects on Walking Frequency | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Direct Effects on Fear of Crime | Effects of Fear of Crime on Walking Frequency | Indirect Effects on Walking Frequency | |||
CCTV | −0.197 | (−0.197) × (−0.065) = 0.013 | - | 0.013 | |
Street lighting | −0.269 | (−0.269) × (−0.065) = 0.017 | −0.053 | −0.036 | |
Maintenance | −0.457 | −0.065 | (−0.457) × (−0.065) = 0.030 | - | 0.030 |
Occupied | - | - | 0.108 | 0.108 | |
Male | −0.724 | (−0.724) × (−0.065) = 0.047 | - | 0.047 | |
Age | - | - | −0.002 | −0.002 |
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Lee, J.S.; Park, S.; Jung, S. Effect of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) Measures on Active Living and Fear of Crime. Sustainability 2016, 8, 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8090872
Lee JS, Park S, Jung S. Effect of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) Measures on Active Living and Fear of Crime. Sustainability. 2016; 8(9):872. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8090872
Chicago/Turabian StyleLee, Jae Seung, Sungjin Park, and Sanghoon Jung. 2016. "Effect of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) Measures on Active Living and Fear of Crime" Sustainability 8, no. 9: 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8090872
APA StyleLee, J. S., Park, S., & Jung, S. (2016). Effect of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) Measures on Active Living and Fear of Crime. Sustainability, 8(9), 872. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8090872