Next Article in Journal
Optimization of Magnetic Field-Assisted Laser Cladding Based on Hierarchical Analysis and Gray Correlation Method
Previous Article in Journal
Enhanced Performance of Fluidic Phononic Crystal Sensors Using Different Quasi-Periodic Crystals
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Crystals
Volume 14
Issue 11
10.3390/cryst14110926
crystals-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effect of Heat Input on Tin Bronze-Induced Intergranular Cracks During Arc Cladding Process

by
Chen Chen
1,*,
Wenjing Li
1,
Fuqiang Tu
2 and
Tao Qin
1
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Wuxi Institute of Technology, Wuxi 214121, China
2
Jiangsu JITRI Surface Engineering Technology Research Institute, Taizhou 225314, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Crystals 2024, 14(11), 926; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14110926
Submission received: 16 October 2024 / Revised: 23 October 2024 / Accepted: 24 October 2024 / Published: 26 October 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Metal Matrix Composites (Second Edition))
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This work aimed to figure out the effect of heat input on the characteristics, formation, and elimination of liquid tin bronze-induced intergranular cracks in steel sheets with a thickness of 2 mm. Tin bronze cladding layers were prepared using an arc cladding technique on the steel. A statistical method was adopted to analyze the severity of intergranular cracks. Microstructures and intergranular cracks were characterized by SEM and TEM. The tensile experiments were carried out using an electronic universal testing machine. For the bare steel sheets, the intergranular cracks originated from the cladding layer and propagated into the interior of the steel along the grain boundaries. The intergranular cracks could evolve into macrocracks and lead to the failure of steel. With the increase in heat input, the maximum temperature, maximum stress, and contact time between steel and liquid tin bronze increased. The severity of intergranular cracks was also increased, and the longest crack reached 520 μm. The mechanical properties of the steel sheets decreased with the increase in heat input. For nickel-plated steel sheets, intergranular cracks were eliminated under low heat input, and a transition layer with a nickel content of 12.32 wt.% was generated. The intergranular cracks generated under high heat input and nickel content in the transition layer were only 1.34 wt.%. The strength of the nickel-plated steel also decreased drastically, and the ductility was almost zero.

1. Introduction

Tin bronze is a common bearing material with excellent comprehensive performance [1,2]. Tin bronze needs to be compounded with steel to form bimetallic sheets. This structure not only exhibits the excellent wear resistance of the bearing alloy but also meets the overall strength and fatigue resistance of the bearing. Researchers have prepared tin bronze layers on steel substrates through various techniques such as arc cladding, arc spraying, laser cladding, and cold spraying [3,4,5,6,7]. Among them, the cost of arc cladding technology is lower, and it is easier to industrialize. A high-quality tin bronze layer can be fabricated on the steel sheets by an arc-cladding technique. Metallurgy bonding is achieved, and the dilution rate is almost zero [8]. Unfortunately, intergranular cracks can be generated in the arc cladding process. This crack appears from the interface and extends into the interior of the steel plate. This type of crack damages the strength and plasticity of the steel plate seriously.
The formation of intergranular cracks can be attributed to the liquid metal embrittlement (LME) phenomenon [9]. As the solid metal comes into contact with liquid metal, the plasticity of solid metal is significantly reduced [10]. When the external load is applied, brittle cracking occurs in the solid metal, and liquid metal can infiltrate into the cracks to form intergranular cracks. The phenomenon of LME is widely present in liquid–solid systems [11,12,13,14]. Among them, Fe-Zn and Fe-Cu systems have been widely researched because of the large use of galvanized steel and copper/steel composite. When the galvanized steel is exposed to a high-temperature environment, the remelting of the zinc coating strongly embrittles the steel substrate and causes catastrophic fracture. The formation and inhibition of liquid zinc-induced embrittlement have been discussed in many studies [15,16]. Grain boundary diffusion is the premise for LME, and an external load accelerates this phenomenon. The LME phenomenon can be inhibited through the optimization of process parameters [17,18].
Liquid copper-induced LME is also a great concern during the copper/steel liquid–solid bonding process involving continuous casting, brazing, and arc cladding. LME in the Fe/Cu system leads to the formation of intergranular cracks. Researchers have investigated these intergranular cracks in recent decades. Austenitic stainless steel is highly susceptible to the permeation of liquid copper, and the penetration depth of ordinary carbon steel is relatively small. In addition, ferritic stainless steel is almost completely unaffected by copper penetration [19,20]. The Sn element in copper alloys promotes the rate of penetration and causes severe embrittlement of steel [21]. Another viewpoint suggests that in a liquid–solid coexistence system, Kirkendall avoids the move to the grain boundaries of steel to generate sufficient space for the penetration of liquid copper [22]. This research considered the influence of contact time, but the influence of stress was not studied.
The inhibition methods of intergranular cracks have attracted sufficient concern. Intergranular cracks could be eliminated through a slow heating speed due to the relatively low stress [23]. The wetting phenomenon between the solid phase and the liquid phase is a necessary factor for the permeation. Therefore, the oxide film on the surface of the solid phase can prevent the permeation of liquid metal [24]. The silicon element in copper alloys can react with steel plates to promote the formation of ferrites, and the ferrite is usually not penetrated by copper alloys [25]. The permeation behavior of copper alloys can be suppressed by nickel elements. Intergranular cracks could be eliminated in the nickel-plated steel through the arc cladding process [26], but the influence of process parameters on the characteristics, formation, and elimination of intergranular cracks was not systematically studied.
Arc cladding is a highly promising technique for preparing tin bronze/steel bimetallic materials. However, the arc cladding process has the characteristics of high temperature, high stress, and short time, which results in serious intergranular cracks and deteriorates the strength of the steel substrate. A detailed description of the formation and elimination process for intergranular cracks is lacking in current research. In this work, the arc cladding technique was adopted to prepare the tin bronze layers on steel sheets (nickel plating and non-nickel plating, respectively). The statistical method was adopted to analyze the severity of intergranular cracks, and finite element simulation was adopted to analyze the temperature and stress. The effect of heat input and nickel plating on the characteristics, formation, and elimination of intergranular cracks was investigated. We studied the mechanism of intergranular cracks in arc cladding under high temperatures and high stress for the first time. The relationship between the process, cracks, and mechanical properties was explored, and the process scope for eliminating these cracks was obtained. This work is of great significance in promoting the development of copper alloy/steel composite materials and arc cladding technology.

2. Experimental Procedure

Steel plates (60 mm × 200 mm × 2 mm) with a nickel-plating layer (10 μm), and bare steel plates without a nickel-plating layer were adopted as the base material. Tin bronze wire (Φ1.2 mm) is the filling material for arc cladding. The chemical composition is listed in Table 1. The arc cladding equipment system is composed of a power source, robot, and controller. The wire is connected to the positive pole of the power source, and the substrate is connected to the negative pole. The arc is generated and the wire is melted to clad the steel. There are many parameters in the arc cladding process, as detailed in Table 2. The heat input can be characterized by line energy (Q), and it is calculated using the following formula [27]:
Q = U I η / S
where U represents the voltage, I represents the current, S represents the cladding speed, and η represents the effective thermal power coefficient (considered as 0.85).
The robot moves along a specific path by swinging to form a cladding layer (Figure 1a). Microstructures and intergranular cracks of samples were characterized by SEM and TEM in order to investigate the influence of cracks on the mechanical properties of steel plates. The preparation process of the specimen is shown in Figure 1b. The size of the specimen (unit: mm) is according to the standard for tensile test specimens of metal sheets (GB/T228.1-2021) [28]. Tensile experiments were carried out using an electronic universal testing machine with a rate of 2 mm/min. The upper surface and the fracture of tensile specimens were observed.
Generally, the severity of cracks is characterized by the length of cracks [29]. But the length of a single intergranular crack has a larger contingency, and it does not represent the real severity of intergranular cracks in the whole steel sheet. Therefore, we characterized the severity of intergranular cracks by counting the length and quantity of intergranular cracks at different positions of steel sheets. The specimens were taken out from both the front position and end position to observe the intergranular cracks on cross-sections (Figure 1c). Figure 1d shows the calculation method for the crack length. Cracks with a length greater than 20 μm are counted in a 500-fold field of view. The first intergranular crack on the far left is labeled as number one, and the numbers increase to the right until the intergranular crack on the far right, which is labeled as number n.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Intergranular Cracks for Samples S1 to S4

3.1.1. Morphologies

The morphologies of intergranular cracks show different states under different corrodents. The morphologies of intergranular cracks in different studies are also different, which brings confusion to the systematic study for intergranular cracks. Thus, samples in this work were etched by FeCl3 solution and nitric alcohol solution, respectively, to observe the different states of intergranular cracks. Figure 2a–c show the cross-sectional morphologies for sample S1 etched by nitric alcohol solution. Intergranular cracks occur at the interface of tin bronze/steel and extend towards the inside of the steel. The grains on both sides of the crack have different grain orientations which indicates that this kind of crack is distributed strictly along the grain boundaries of steel according to the result of TEM. Intergranular cracks show a hollow state as the cross-section is etched by the FeCl3 solution (Figure 2d–f). The main intergranular cracks have some branch intergranular cracks, and some intergranular cracks are reticulated.
Figure 3a shows the enlarged morphologies of intergranular crack for sample S1. The results of energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) area analysis (Figure 3b) and element map distribution analysis (Figure 3c–f) indicate that the intergranular crack is essentially a copper-rich phase. The composition of intergranular cracks is almost consistent with the tin bronze, but the content of tin and iron in intergranular cracks is relatively higher than that in the cladding layer. The morphologies of intergranular cracks in samples S2–S4 are similar to sample S1, but the length of intergranular cracks increases with the increase in heat input (Figure 4).

3.1.2. Severity of Intergranular Cracks for Samples S1 to S4

The descriptions of the crack length distribution for cross-sections of samples S1–S4 are shown in Figure 5. The sampling and statistical methods of intergranular cracks are described in Figure 1c,d. Figure 5a shows the length of each intergranular crack for the front position of sample S1. The single red bar is represented as an intergranular crack. The ordinate is represented as the length, and the abscissa is represented as the number. Number one in the abscissa represents the leftmost intergranular crack on the cross-section, and number thirty-three in the abscissa represents the rightmost intergranular crack, which means there are thirty-three intergranular cracks in the whole cross-section. The length of each intergranular crack is less than 100 μm (Figure 5b). There are thirty-four intergranular cracks at the end position, and there are two intergranular cracks whose length ranges from 150 μm to 200 μm (Figure 5c,d). Similarly to the above description, the length and length interval distribution of intergranular cracks for samples S2–S4 are shown in Figure 5e–p.
Based on the statistics data in Figure 5, the severity of intergranular cracks is characterized by four aspects, including the number of intergranular cracks, the quantity of large intergranular cracks, the total length of intergranular cracks, and the length of the main intergranular cracks, as shown in Figure 6. Among them, large intergranular cracks refer to the intergranular cracks whose length is more than 50 μm, and the length of the main intergranular cracks refers to the average length of the three longest intergranular cracks. The results indicate that the quantity of intergranular cracks, the quantity of large intergranular cracks, the total length of intergranular cracks, and the length of the main intergranular cracks increased with the increase in heat input. Therefore, it can be considered that the severity of intergranular cracks is increased with the increase in heat input. In addition, the severity of intergranular cracks is increased at the end positions compared with the front positions of the steel sheets.

3.1.3. Formation Process of Intergranular Cracks

Thermal stress could be generated on the steel sheets in the arc cladding. Temperature and stress on the upper surfaces of the steel sheets at different times under different levels of heat input were obtained by finite element simulation, and the results are shown in Figure 7. The sample and coordinate system are shown in Figure 1c. Compressive stress is positive, and the tensile stress is negative. When the time is located in the gray area, tin bronze is in a liquid state. It can be inferred that the upper surfaces of bare steel sheets were directly in contact with liquid tin bronze, and the upper surfaces of bare steel sheets were subjected to three-dimensional tensile stress simultaneously. These were the two necessary factors for generating the intergranular cracks.
The formation process of the intergranular cracks is described in Figure 8. Generally, the diffusion rate of atoms in grain boundaries is faster, and the diffusion rate of tin atoms is faster than that of copper atoms [30,31]. Thus, copper atoms and tin atoms could diffuse in the grain boundaries of steel rapidly as the liquid tin bronze contacted directly with the steel sheet (Step 1). Copper atoms and tin atoms reduced the strength of grain boundaries [32,33]. The steel plate is subjected to three-dimensional tensile stress, causing the cracking of the grain boundaries (Step 2). Then, tin and copper atoms can continue penetrating the steel substrate, and the grain boundaries crack further (Step 3 and Step 4). From the solidification of liquid tin bronze, the above four steps were terminated, and the intergranular cracks were finally formed (Step 5).
According to Figure 7, the maximum temperature, maximum stress, and contact time between steel and liquid tin bronze increased with the increase in heat input. The intergranular diffusion rate increased with the increase in temperature. Furthermore, the larger tensile stress can break the grain boundaries more easily, and the longer contact time increases the diffusion distance. Therefore, the severity of intergranular cracks increases accordingly, and the severity of intergranular cracks at the end positions is also greater than that at the front positions.

3.2. Elimination of Intergranular Cracks for Samples S5 to S8

3.2.1. Morphologies of Intergranular Cracks

Samples S5–S8 have the same arc cladding process parameters compared with samples S1–S4, but the steel sheets are plated with nickel. Figure 9a shows the interface between tin bronze and steel, where intergranular cracks disappear. This means that the addition of nickel plating combined with the lower heat input can eliminate the intergranular cracks. At the interface, a transition layer whose thickness ranges from 1 to 2 μm is generated. Figure 9b shows the enlarged morphologies of the interface for sample S5, the EDS point (point 3), elements line distribution, and elements map distribution analysis at the interface (Figure 6c,d), indicating that the transition layer is an iron-based phase. The content of nickel is 12.32 wt.%; nickel is enriched in the transition layer compared with other areas.
For sample S6, the heat input is increased, and intergranular cracks are observed in the steel sheet (Figure 10a). The transition layer appears at the interface, but this layer is interrupted by the intergranular cracks. Figure 10b shows the enlarged morphologies of the tin bronze/steel interface for sample S6, the EDS point (point 4), elements line distribution, and elements map distribution analysis at the interface (Figure 10c,d), which indicate that the transition layer is also an iron-based phase. But the content of nickel is only 1.34 wt.%, which is lower than that of sample S5. The morphologies of intergranular cracks in samples S7–S8 are similar to sample S6, but large intergranular cracks appear, and some intergranular cracks penetrate through the entire steel sheet and seep to the back of the steel sheet (Figure 11).

3.2.2. Severity of Intergranular Cracks for Samples S6 to S8

No intergranular crack was observed in sample S5. The descriptions of crack length distribution for the cross-sections of samples S6–S8 is shown in Figure 12, and the severity of the intergranular cracks are shown in Figure 13. For sample S6, intergranular cracks disappeared at the front position of the steel sheet, while intergranular cracks appeared at the end position of the steel sheet. The severity of intergranular cracks increased with the increase in the heat input, and the severity of intergranular cracks increased at the end positions compared to the front positions. Compared with samples S2–S4, the number of intergranular cracks for samples S6–S8 decreased, and the maximum length of the intergranular cracks increased under the same heat input.

3.2.3. Elimination of Intergranular Cracks

The intimate contact between liquid tin bronze and steel sheets, along with the three-dimensional tensile stress applied in the upper surfaces of bare steel sheets, were the two essential factors for the formation of intergranular cracks. Thus, changing the contact state between steel and tin bronze is an effective way to eliminate intergranular cracks.
Figure 14 shows the elimination of intergranular cracks for sample S5. The nickel layer was plated on the steel sheet (Step 1). The thickness of the nickel layer was only 10 μm, and the arc completely melted the nickel layer. The melted nickel did not completely diffuse into the cladding layer, and part of the nickel was concentrated at the tin bronze/steel interface to form a nickel-rich zone due to the relatively lower heat input (Step 2). The nickel-rich zone separated the steel sheet from liquid tin bronze. The steel sheet was in direct contact with the nickel-rich zone instead of the liquid tin bronze. The nickel element increases the melting point of the copper alloy and reduces the contact time between the liquid copper alloy and steel [34]. The nickel-rich zone solidified rapidly to form the transition layer, and liquid tin-bronze had no chance to form contact with steel (Step 3). Meanwhile, nickel increased the solubility of copper in the iron [30], and the segregation of copper at the grain boundary of steel could be reduced. The increase in nickel content also reduced the content of copper and tin in the nickel-rich zone, which resulted in a slower diffusion rate of copper and tin in grain boundaries. Meanwhile, nickel atoms could not embrittle the grain boundaries of steel [35]. Thus, the intergranular cracks were eliminated through the addition of nickel plating combined with a low-heat input.
For sample S6, the heat input increased. Most of the melted nickel was diffused into the cladding layer, and the nickel content at the interface was decreased (Figure 10b). The inhibition effect of nickel for the intergranular crack was weakened. Partial grain boundaries fractured preferentially, and intergranular cracks were produced.

3.3. Mechanical Properties of Steel Sheets

Figure 15a,b shows the stress–displacement curves for steel sheets after the arc cladding process, and the tensile strength is shown in Figure 15c. For samples S1–S4, the strength and ductility decreased with the increase in heat input. The tensile strength of the steel decreased from 460 MPa to 408 MPa. For samples S5–S8, the steel sheet of sample S5 had high strength and ductility compared to sample S1. Strength and ductility decreased slightly for sample S6. With the further increase in heat input, the strength and ductility of samples S7–S8 decreased drastically. The ductility of sample S8 was almost zero.
Figure 16 shows the morphologies for the upper surfaces of the steel sheets after tensile experiments. Macrocracks appear on the upper surface of the steel sheet for sample S1, which indicated that intergranular cracks could evolve into macrocracks during the tensile process. For samples S2–S4, the morphologies were the same as in sample S1, but the phenomenon of necking gradually weakened, and the size of the macrocracks became larger. No macrocrack appeared on the steel sheet of sample S5, and the necking phenomenon was clear. However, macrocracks appeared in sample S6, but the quantity of the cracks was small. For samples S7–S8, larger macrocracks appeared, and the necking phenomenon disappeared.
Figure 17 shows the morphologies of fractures for steel sheets. The fracture of sample S1 contains both brittle and ductile fracture zones (Figure 17a). The ductile fracture zone can exhibit ductile dimples, while the brittle fracture zone exhibits intergranular fracture (Figure 17i,j). The copper-rich phase is detected in a brittle fracture zone (Figure 17k,l). With the increase in the heat input, the area of the brittle fracture zones increased for samples S2–S4 (Figure 17b–d). For sample S5, the whole fracture was the ductile fracture zone (Figure 17e). However, discontinuous brittle fracture zones appeared for samples S6–S7 (Figure 17f,g). For sample S8, the whole fracture was the brittle fracture zone (Figure 17h).
Intergranular cracks have a greater impact on the strength of the steel sheet. Intergranular cracks separated the grains and led to brittle fractures in the tensile process, which deteriorated the strength and ductility of the steel sheets. For samples S1–S4, with the increase in heat input, the severity of intergranular cracks increased, and the area of brittle fracture zones also increased, which further caused a decrease in strength and ductility for steel sheets. For sample S5, the strength and ductility of the steel sheet also improved with the elimination of the intergranular cracks. For sample S6, the strength and ductility of the steel sheet were decreased due to the generation of intergranular cracks. With the further increase in heat input, large intergranular cracks were generated. The strength and ductility of the steel sheets for samples S7–S8 decreased drastically.

4. Conclusions

The arc cladding technique was adopted to prepare the tin bronze layers on steel. The effect of heat input and nickel plating on the characteristics, formation, and elimination of intergranular cracks was studied. The conclusions are as follows:
(1)
Intergranular cracks occur at the interface of tin bronze/steel and extend towards the inside of steel along the grain boundaries. Intergranular cracks were essentially copper-rich phases whose composition was almost consistent with the cladding layer.
(2)
The upper surfaces of bare steel sheets were subjected to three-dimensional tensile stress in arc cladding, and the upper surfaces of bare steel sheets were in intimate contact with liquid tin bronze at the same time. These were two necessary factors for the formation of the intergranular cracks.
(3)
Intergranular cracks led to the intergranular fracture of the steel sheets in the tensile experiments. The tensile strength of the steel decreased from 460 MPa to 408 MPa with the increasing severity of intergranular cracks.
(4)
With the increase in heat input, the maximum temperature, maximum stress, and contact time between steel and liquid tin bronze increased. The severity of intergranular cracks also increased with the increase in heat input, and the longest crack reached 520 μm. The severity of intergranular cracks at the end positions of steel sheets was also greater than that at the front positions.
(5)
Intergranular cracks were eliminated in the nickel-plated steel sheet under low heat input, and a transition layer with a nickel content of 12.32 wt.% was generated. The intergranular cracks were also generated under high heat input, and nickel content in the transition layer was only 1.34 wt.%. The strength of the nickel-plated steel also decreased drastically, and the ductility was almost zero.

Author Contributions

C.C.: Conceptualization and Methodology; W.L.: Investigation; F.T.: Data curation; T.Q.: Supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of the Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions of China, grant number 24KJD430010 and the Natural Science Research Project of Wuxi Institute of Technology, grant number BT2023-01.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the teachers at the Jiangsu Intelligent Production Line Technology and Equipment Engineering Research Center for the help of experiments.

Conflicts of Interest

The author Fuqiang Tu has been involved as a consultant and expert witness at Jiangsu JITRI Surface Engineering Technology Research Institute. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as potential conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Zhao, L.; Li, J.; Yang, Q.; Wang, Y.; Wang, Y.; Zhang, X.; Li, H.; Yang, Z.; Xu, D.; Liu, J. Study on friction and wear properties of new self-lubricating bearing materials. Crystals 2022, 12, 834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Guo, M.; Zhang, G.; Rong, Y.; Liu, X.; Huang, Y.; Wu, C. Hierarchical structure on tin bronze hydrostatic bearing surfaces to achieve ultra-high Cassie stability. J. Alloys Compd. 2024, 1005, 175504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Xiao, P.; Wang, L.; Tang, Y.; Tu, X.; Song, X.; Chen, L.; Liu, F.; Zhang, Y. Effect of wire composition on microstructure and penetration crack of laser-cold metal transfer hybrid welded Cu and stainless steel joints. Mater. Chem. Phys. 2023, 299, 127480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Chen, J.; Yang, Y.; Song, C.; Zhang, M.; Wu, S.; Wang, D. Interfacial microstructure and mechanical properties of 316L/CuSn10 multi-material bimetallic structure fabricated by selective laser melting. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2019, 752, 75–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Hou, Q.Y.; Ding, T.T.; Zhen, Y.H.; Ping, W.; Yu, C.W. Microstructure and properties of mixed Cu-Sn and Fe-based alloys with molybdenum addition processed by plasma transferred arc. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2015, 283, 184–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Gao, F.; Liu, R.; Wu, X.J. Behavior of T-401tin-bronze composite coating deposited by HVOF. Wear 2010, 269, 724–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Guo, X.P.; Zhang, G.; Li, W.Y.; Gao, Y.; Li, H.L.; Coddeta, C. Investigation of the microstructure and tribological behavior of cold-sprayed tin-bronze-based composite coatings. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2009, 255, 3822–3828. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Chen, C.; Sun, K.; Zhao, J.; Zhou, J.; Xue, F. Effect of current on microstructures and properties of tin bronze/steel bimetallic sheets fabricated by arc deposited technique. Mater. Res. Express 2019, 6, 126534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Ezequiel, M.; Proriol, I.P.; Auger, T.; Héripré, E.; Hadjem-Hamouche, Z.; Perriere, L. The liquid metal embrittlement of a reactive system at room temperature: α-brasses in contact with the liquid eutectic Ga-In. Eng. Fail. Anal. 2024, 164, 108694. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Mei, H.; Cheng, L.; Yang, S.; Wang, F.; Li, J.; Kong, L. Effect of alloying elements on zinc-induced liquid metal embrittlement in steels: A first-principles study. Comp. Mater. Sci. 2024, 242, 113104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Bai, J.; Jin, X.; Shi, X.; Yang, H.; Lan, A.; Qiao, J. Temperature-dependent liquid metal embrittlement of Al0.7CoCrFeNi high-entropy alloys induced by equiatomic GaInSnZn melts. J. Alloys Compd. 2023, 968, 172234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Hong, S.H.; Im, Y.R.; Lee, S.; Kim, S.J. Influence of microstructural morphologies on liquid metal embrittlement of Zn-coated dual-phase steels. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2024, 483, 130771. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Nandi, V.; Bhat, R.R.; Yatisha, I.N.; Suresh, S.V. Liquid-metal-induced embrittlement in turbine casing segment screws of an aeroengine. J. Fail. Anal. Prev. 2012, 4, 348–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Petersson, C.; Szakalos, P.; Pettersson, R.; Stein, D.D. Negative effect of bismuth in lead on liquid metal embrittlement of a ferritic steel. J. Nucl. Mater. 2024, 588, 154829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Razmpoosh, M.H.; Macwan, A.; Biro, E.; Chen, D.L.; Peng, Y.; Goodwin, F.; Zhou, Y. Liquid metal embrittlement in laser beam welding of Zn-coated 22MnB5 steel. Mater. Design 2018, 155, 375–383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Razmpoosh, M.H.; Macwan, A.; Goodwin, F.; Biro, E.; Zhou, Y. Crystallographic study of liquid-metal-embrittlement crack path. Mater. Lett. 2020, 267, 127511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Lalachan, A.; Murugan, S.P.; Jin, W.S.; Park, Y.D. Liquid metal embrittlement in Zn-coated steel resistance spot welding: Critical electrode-contact and nugget growth for stress development and cracking. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2023, 318, 118009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. He, L.; DiGiovanni, C.; Han, X.; Mehling, C.; Wintjes, E.; Biro, E.; Zhou, N.Y. Suppression of liquid metal embrittlement in resistance spot welding of TRIP steel. Sci. Technol. Weld. Join. 2019, 24, 579–586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Sage, D.; Fink, C. Understanding temperature and dwell time dependence of liquid metal embrittlement in austenitic stainless steel by liquid zinc and copper. Materialia 2022, 24, 101502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Vigilante, G.N.; Bartolucci, S.; Izzo, J.; Witherell, M.; Smith, S.B. Gleeble testing to assess solid/liquid metal embrittlement of gun steels by copper. Mater. Manuf. Process 2012, 27, 835–839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Zou, Y.; Langer, E.W. A study of the formation and penetration of the molten copper-rich phase in iron with the addition of nickel and tin. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 1989, 110, 203–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Fredriksson, H.; Hansson, K.; Olsson, A. On the mechanism of liquid copper penetration into iron grain boundaries. Scand. J. Metall. 2000, 30, 41–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Chen, Y.; Wu, Q.Q.; Pei, Y.Y.; Deng, J.; Long, W.M.; Liu, S.X. Effects of Brazing Filler and Method on ITER Thermal Anchor Joint Crack. Mater. Manuf. Process 2015, 30, 1074–1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Gong, X.; Marmy, P.; Yin, Y. The role of oxide films in preventing liquid metal embrittlement of T91 steel exposed to liquid lead-bismuth eutectic. J. Nucl. Mater. 2018, 509, 401–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Chen, S.H.; Yu, X.H.; Huang, J.H.; Yang, J.; Lin, S.B. Interfacial ferrite band formation to suppress intergranular liquid copper penetration of solid steel. J. Alloys Compd. 2019, 773, 719–729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Chen, C.; Zhou, J.; Xue, F.; Wu, Q.P. Elimination of liquid metal embrittlement cracks during arc cladding of tin bronze on steel sheet. Mater. Lett. 2020, 269, 127646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Pouranvari, M.; Abbasi, M. Dissimilar gas tungsten arc weld-brazing of Al/steel using Al-Si filler metal: Microstructure and strengthening mechanisms. J. Alloys Compd. 2018, 749, 121–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. GB/T 228.1–2021, Metallic Materials—Tensile Testing—Part 1: Method of Test at Room Temperature. Available online: https://openstd.samr.gov.cn/bzgk/gb/newGbInfo?hcno=199802936CD7F87F7E148344384BD6EE (accessed on 1 October 2024).
  29. Soysal, T.; Kou, S. Effect of filler metals on solidification cracking susceptibility of Al alloys 2024 and 6061. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2018, 266, 421–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Ishida, T. The interaction of molten copper with solid iron. J. Mater. Sci. 1987, 21, 1171–1179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Yin, L.; Sridhar, S. Effects of small additions of tin on high-temperature oxidation of fe-cu-sn alloys for surface hot shortness. Metall. Mater. Trans. B 2010, 41, 1095–1107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Yuasa, M.; Mabuchi, M. Effects of segregated Cu on an Fe grain boundary by first principles tensile tests. J. Phys-Condens. Mat. 2010, 22, 505705. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Yamaguchi, M.; Kameda, J. Multiscale thermodynamic analysis on fracture toughness loss induced by solute segregation in steel. Philos. Mag. 2014, 94, 2131–2149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Bastow, B.D.; Kirkwood, D.H. Solid/Liquid Equilibrium in Copper-Nickel-Tin System Determined by Mcroprobe Analysis. J. Inst. Met. 1971, 99, 277–283. [Google Scholar]
  35. Farkas, D.; Nogueira, R.; Ruda, M.; Hyde, B. Atomistic simulations of the effects of segregated elements on grain-boundary fracture in body-centered-cubic Fe. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2005, 36 A, 2067–2072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Crystals 14 00926 g001
Figure 1. Experimental methods: (a) formation of cladding layer; (b) tensile experiment; (c) sampling positions; and (d) length and statistics of intergranular cracks.
Figure 1. Experimental methods: (a) formation of cladding layer; (b) tensile experiment; (c) sampling positions; and (d) length and statistics of intergranular cracks.
Crystals 14 00926 g001
Crystals 14 00926 g002
Figure 2. Morphologies of intergranular cracks for samples S1: (a–c) cross-section etched by nitric alcohol solution; (d–f) cross-section etched by FeCl3 solution.
Figure 2. Morphologies of intergranular cracks for samples S1: (a–c) cross-section etched by nitric alcohol solution; (d–f) cross-section etched by FeCl3 solution.
Crystals 14 00926 g002
Crystals 14 00926 g003
Figure 3. Composition analysis of intergranular crack for samples S1 (etched by nitric alcohol solution): (a) enlarged morphologies of intergranular crack; (b) EDS area analysis; and (c–f) EDS elements for map distribution analysis.
Figure 3. Composition analysis of intergranular crack for samples S1 (etched by nitric alcohol solution): (a) enlarged morphologies of intergranular crack; (b) EDS area analysis; and (c–f) EDS elements for map distribution analysis.
Crystals 14 00926 g003
Crystals 14 00926 g004
Figure 4. Intergranular cracks under high heat input (sample S4).
Figure 4. Intergranular cracks under high heat input (sample S4).
Crystals 14 00926 g004
Crystals 14 00926 g005
Figure 5. Length of each intergranular crack and length interval distribution of intergranular cracks for the cross-sections of samples S1–S4: (a,b) front position for sample S1; (c,d) end position for sample S1; (e,f) front position for sample S2; (g,h) end position for sample S2; (i,j) front position for sample S3; (k,l) end position for sample S3; (m,n) front position for sample S4; and (o,p) end position for sample S4.
Figure 5. Length of each intergranular crack and length interval distribution of intergranular cracks for the cross-sections of samples S1–S4: (a,b) front position for sample S1; (c,d) end position for sample S1; (e,f) front position for sample S2; (g,h) end position for sample S2; (i,j) front position for sample S3; (k,l) end position for sample S3; (m,n) front position for sample S4; and (o,p) end position for sample S4.
Crystals 14 00926 g005
Crystals 14 00926 g006
Figure 6. Severity of intergranular cracks for samples S1–S4: (a) quantity of intergranular cracks; (b) quantity of large intergranular cracks; (c) total length of intergranular crack; and (d) length of the main intergranular cracks.
Figure 6. Severity of intergranular cracks for samples S1–S4: (a) quantity of intergranular cracks; (b) quantity of large intergranular cracks; (c) total length of intergranular crack; and (d) length of the main intergranular cracks.
Crystals 14 00926 g006
Crystals 14 00926 g007
Figure 7. Temperature and stress on the upper surface of the steel sheets under different heat inputs: (a) front positions under heat input of 319 J·mm−1 (samples S1 and S5); (b) end positions under heat input of 319 J·mm−1 (samples S1 and S5); (c) front positions under heat input of 396 J·mm−1 (samples S4 and S8); and (d) end positions under heat input of 396 J·mm−1 (samples S4 and S8).
Figure 7. Temperature and stress on the upper surface of the steel sheets under different heat inputs: (a) front positions under heat input of 319 J·mm−1 (samples S1 and S5); (b) end positions under heat input of 319 J·mm−1 (samples S1 and S5); (c) front positions under heat input of 396 J·mm−1 (samples S4 and S8); and (d) end positions under heat input of 396 J·mm−1 (samples S4 and S8).
Crystals 14 00926 g007
Crystals 14 00926 g008
Figure 8. Formation process of the intergranular cracks.
Figure 8. Formation process of the intergranular cracks.
Crystals 14 00926 g008
Crystals 14 00926 g009
Figure 9. Tin bronze/steel interface for sample S5 (etched by FeCl3 solution): (a) morphologies of interface; (b) enlarged morphologies of interface; (c) EDS elements line distribution and the blue arrow in (b) indicates the scanning direction; and (d) EDS elements map distribution at the interface for (b).
Figure 9. Tin bronze/steel interface for sample S5 (etched by FeCl3 solution): (a) morphologies of interface; (b) enlarged morphologies of interface; (c) EDS elements line distribution and the blue arrow in (b) indicates the scanning direction; and (d) EDS elements map distribution at the interface for (b).
Crystals 14 00926 g009
Crystals 14 00926 g010
Figure 10. Tin bronze/steel interface for the sample S6 (etched by FeCl3 solution): (a) morphologies of interface; (b) enlarged morphologies of interface; (c) EDS elements line distribution and the blue arrow in (b) indicates the scanning direction; and (d) EDS elements map distribution at the interface for (b).
Figure 10. Tin bronze/steel interface for the sample S6 (etched by FeCl3 solution): (a) morphologies of interface; (b) enlarged morphologies of interface; (c) EDS elements line distribution and the blue arrow in (b) indicates the scanning direction; and (d) EDS elements map distribution at the interface for (b).
Crystals 14 00926 g010
Crystals 14 00926 g011
Figure 11. Intergranular cracks in sample S8: (a) large intergranular cracks; (b) intergranular cracks at the back of the steel sheet.
Figure 11. Intergranular cracks in sample S8: (a) large intergranular cracks; (b) intergranular cracks at the back of the steel sheet.
Crystals 14 00926 g011
Crystals 14 00926 g012
Figure 12. Length of each intergranular crack and length interval distribution of intergranular cracks for the cross-sections of samples S6–S8: (a,b) end position for sample S6; (c,d) front position for sample S7; (e,f) end position for sample S7; (g,h) front position for sample S8; and (i,j) end position for sample S8.
Figure 12. Length of each intergranular crack and length interval distribution of intergranular cracks for the cross-sections of samples S6–S8: (a,b) end position for sample S6; (c,d) front position for sample S7; (e,f) end position for sample S7; (g,h) front position for sample S8; and (i,j) end position for sample S8.
Crystals 14 00926 g012
Crystals 14 00926 g013
Figure 13. Severity of intergranular cracks for samples S6–S8: (a) quantity of intergranular cracks; (b) quantity of large intergranular cracks; (c) total length of intergranular cracks; and (d) length of the main intergranular cracks.
Figure 13. Severity of intergranular cracks for samples S6–S8: (a) quantity of intergranular cracks; (b) quantity of large intergranular cracks; (c) total length of intergranular cracks; and (d) length of the main intergranular cracks.
Crystals 14 00926 g013
Crystals 14 00926 g014
Figure 14. Elimination of intergranular cracks.
Figure 14. Elimination of intergranular cracks.
Crystals 14 00926 g014
Crystals 14 00926 g015
Figure 15. Tensile strength of steel after arc cladding process: (a) stress–displacement curves for samples S1–S4; (b) stress–displacement curves for samples S5–S8; and (c) tensile strength under different heat inputs.
Figure 15. Tensile strength of steel after arc cladding process: (a) stress–displacement curves for samples S1–S4; (b) stress–displacement curves for samples S5–S8; and (c) tensile strength under different heat inputs.
Crystals 14 00926 g015
Crystals 14 00926 g016
Figure 16. Morphologies for the upper surfaces of steel sheets: (a) sample S1; (b) sample S2; (c) sample S3; (d) sample S4; (e) sample S5; (f) sample S6; (g) sample S7; and (h) sample S8.
Figure 16. Morphologies for the upper surfaces of steel sheets: (a) sample S1; (b) sample S2; (c) sample S3; (d) sample S4; (e) sample S5; (f) sample S6; (g) sample S7; and (h) sample S8.
Crystals 14 00926 g016
Crystals 14 00926 g017
Figure 17. Morphologies of fractures for steel sheets: (a) sample S1; (b) sample S2; (c) sample S3; (d) sample S4; (e) sample S5; (f) sample S6; (g) sample S7; (h) sample S8; (i) ductile fracture zone; (j) brittle fracture zone; and (k,l) elements map distribution for brittle fracture zone.
Figure 17. Morphologies of fractures for steel sheets: (a) sample S1; (b) sample S2; (c) sample S3; (d) sample S4; (e) sample S5; (f) sample S6; (g) sample S7; (h) sample S8; (i) ductile fracture zone; (j) brittle fracture zone; and (k,l) elements map distribution for brittle fracture zone.
Crystals 14 00926 g017
Table 1. Detailed composition (wt.%).
Table 1. Detailed composition (wt.%).
FeCSiMnSPSnCu
Tin Bronze Wire-----0.1–0.357.5–8.5Bal
Steel SheetsBal0.1–0.20.05–0.010.5–0.8≤0.0035≤0.0035--
Table 2. Detailed parameters.
Table 2. Detailed parameters.
SubstratesSamplesCurrent/AVoltage/VCladding Speed/mm × s−1Swing/mmHeat Input/J × mm−1
Bare Steel SheetsS17013.42.511319
S27513.52.511344
S38013.62.511370
S48513.72.511396
Nickel-Plated Steel SheetsS57013.42.511319
S67513.52.511344
S78013.62.511370
S88513.72.511396
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Chen, C.; Li, W.; Tu, F.; Qin, T. Effect of Heat Input on Tin Bronze-Induced Intergranular Cracks During Arc Cladding Process. Crystals 2024, 14, 926. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14110926

AMA Style

Chen C, Li W, Tu F, Qin T. Effect of Heat Input on Tin Bronze-Induced Intergranular Cracks During Arc Cladding Process. Crystals. 2024; 14(11):926. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14110926

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chen, Chen, Wenjing Li, Fuqiang Tu, and Tao Qin. 2024. "Effect of Heat Input on Tin Bronze-Induced Intergranular Cracks During Arc Cladding Process" Crystals 14, no. 11: 926. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14110926

APA Style

Chen, C., Li, W., Tu, F., & Qin, T. (2024). Effect of Heat Input on Tin Bronze-Induced Intergranular Cracks During Arc Cladding Process. Crystals, 14(11), 926. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14110926

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop