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Article

Evaluation of the Role of Legumes in Crop Rotation Schemes of Organic or Conventionally Cultivated Cabbage

by
Dionisios Yfantopoulos
1,
Georgia Ntatsi
1,*,
Anestis Karkanis
2 and
Dimitrios Savvas
1
1
Laboratory of Vegetable Production, Department of Crop Science, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece
2
Laboratory of Weed Science, Department of Agriculture Crop Production and Rural Environment, University of Thessaly, 38446 Volos, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2024, 14(2), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14020297
Submission received: 21 December 2023 / Revised: 20 January 2024 / Accepted: 26 January 2024 / Published: 29 January 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Cabbage is an annual vegetable crop species cultivated throughout the year. The development of high-yielding cabbage hybrids and the optimization of several agronomic management practices such as fertilization and crop rotation have resulted in increased soil fertility, crop yield and product quality. This study aimed to investigate the effects of the farming system (organic and conventional) and the applied rotation scheme on soil nutrient content, head yield and the nutrient content of cabbage. The preceding crops included either pea (P), faba bean (F) or cabbage (C), and thus, the rotation schemes were P-C, F-C and C-C. Sheep manure was applied in the organic farming system, and the inorganic fertilizer 11-15-15 (N-P2O5-K2O) was applied to the conventionally cultivated plants. The results reveal an interaction between the farming system and the preceding crop for the head yield, with the lowest values (57.00 t ha−1 and 53.87 t ha−1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, respectively) recorded in plots where cabbage was cultivated as a preceding crop under the organic farming system. The N, P and K contents in head tissues were affected only by the farming system, with the greatest values recorded in the conventional farming system. Both factors affected the nutrient content in the soil. Specifically, the highest values of NO3− and total N content in the soil were recorded in the P-C and F-C rotations, and the K content was higher in the continuous cabbage cropping system (C-C). Moreover, the NO3−, P and K contents in the soils were higher in the conventional farming system compared to the organic system. To conclude, combining inorganic fertilization in a crop rotation scheme with legume species such as pea and faba bean as preceding crops for cabbage can result in increased soil fertility and head yield.

1. Introduction

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) is a biennial vegetable species grown as an annual crop in different seasons of the year [1,2,3]. This vegetable is predominantly consumed in salads, pickles and cooked dishes [1,3]. Its high nutritional value [1] is attributed to the presence of several glucosinolates, including sinigrin, glucoraphanin, gluconapin, glucoerucin and progoitrin, which are found in the leaves [2,4,5]. The glucosinolates glucoraphanin and glucoerucin contained in cabbage are hydrolyzed by the enzyme myrosinase to produce the isothiocyanates sulforaphane and erucin, compounds that have been shown to possess anticarcinogenic activity [4]. Additionally, cabbage is rich in flavonoids like kaempferol, quercetin and apigenin, as well as vitamin C [6,7].
Cabbage is a widely cultivated vegetable around the world. According to the FAO statistical database, in 2021, the global cabbage cultivation was 2,450,601 hectares, with Europe contributing 305,603 hectares [8]. The corresponding cabbage yields were 29,261 kg ha−1 and 30,411 kg ha−1 for global and European production, respectively [8]. According to the FAO [8], in 2021, an increase of 24% in cabbage crop yield in Europe was recorded when compared to yield data recorded in 1990. This increase in yield has been attributed to the cultivation of cabbage hybrids that have been developed to differ in various traits, such as head shape (round, drum and pointed), leaf color (green, dark green and red or purple), head size and yield potential [1,9]. Cabbage yields typically range from 14.2 t ha−1 to 139.2 t ha−1. This wide variation in yield is mainly attributed to the specific hybrid cultivated and the applied management practices, such as plant spacing, growing season and fertilization [9,10,11,12,13].
Meeting the nutrient requirements of cabbage is essential for achieving a high yield and product quality, as it is a highly demanding vegetable crop for the main macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). Research by Lopandić and Zarić [14] showed that, by applying 240 kg ha−1 N, 140 kg ha−1 P and 210 kg ha−1 K, a high crop yield can be obtained. Similarly, Rosen et al. [15] found that the application of 250 kg ha−1 N increased the cabbage yield by 17% compared to a low nitrogen rate of 125 kg ha−1 N. In another study, Cui et al. [7] reported that the application of the inorganic fertilizer N-P-K (15-6.5-12.4) increased the cabbage yield by 18.3% compared to a control treatment in which no N was applied, and the combined application of inorganic fertilizer with organic fertilizer further increased the crop yield. In an experiment conducted in Brazil, the application of 150 kg ha−1 N, 100 kg ha−1 P2O5 and 100 kg ha−1 K2O increased the cabbage yield by 45.6% compared to the control treatment [16].
Crop rotation is considered one of the most important agricultural cultivation practices that contribute to increased soil fertility and crop productivity through an improved N supply and reduced pest and weed pressure [17,18,19,20]. Continuous vegetable cropping is commonly associated with decreased productivity in several crops of high economic importance, such as Chinese cabbage, potato and tomato [19,21,22]. Feng et al. [22] reported a yield decrease in tomato of up to 46% in a monoculture system compared to rotations with other crops (e.g., eggplant). One of the most important factors that determines the success of crop rotation is the selection of the species to be included in the applied scheme. The incorporation of legume species such as pea and faba bean in rotation schemes has proven to be highly beneficial to both crop productivity and soil fertility through the improvement of organic C and total N content, available P and K, bulk density and cation exchange capacity [23,24,25,26]. Indeed, Shi et al. [25] reported a decline in the total N and C contents in a continuous potato cropping system compared to a crop rotation system of potato–pea. Similarly, the inclusion of faba bean in rotation schemes significantly increases both total N and C compared to non-legume rotation schemes [23]. It is also important to highlight that, in organic farming, in a cropping system with N limitations, the inclusion of legumes in the rotation scheme is an important N source due to their ability to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere [18,27,28,29]. Besides the increased yield in subsequent crops [30] and soil N enhancement that could lead to reduced dependency on N fertilizers, the incorporation of legumes into cropping systems can be beneficial to a wide range of ecological and human health perspectives. Indeed, the ecosystem services of legumes range from reductions in greenhouse gas emissions [31], plant-parasitic nematode and weed management [32,33], biodiversity conservation [34], sustainable intensification, which is of paramount importance for smallholder agriculture viability [35], and increased feed and forage self-sufficiency [36]. Moreover, the increased use of legume-derived products (e.g., protein) can lead to more healthy and sustainable diets [37,38].
Taking the above into consideration, a study was designed to evaluate the impact of crop rotation with cabbage, pea or faba bean on cabbage yield in both organic and conventional farming practices. The effects of the applied preceding crop (faba bean, pea or cabbage) and the fertilization scheme (organic or conventional) on soil fertility (N, P, K, NO3−-N and NH4+-N) and nutrient content (N, P, and K) in the head tissues of cabbage plants were also assessed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Site Description

Two field experiments (1st experiment: October 2015–March 2016; 2nd experiment: September 2016–February 2017) with cabbage as the main crop were conducted at the experimental farm of the Agricultural University of Athens in the Kopais region, located in central Greece (23°0504100′ E, 38°2305100′ N, altitude 95 m). The soil was silty clay in texture (clay: 43.7%, silt: 25.6%, and sand: 30.7%) with a pH of 8.1, EC (electrical conductivity) of 0.74 mS cm−1 and organic matter of 10.79%, and the total N, P, and the K content in the soil prior to the experiments’ establishment (October 2014) were 0.27%, 28 mg kg−1 and 137 mg kg−1, respectively [30]. The mean monthly air temperatures and precipitation during the two growing seasons of cabbage crop are given in our study by Yfantopoulos [39].

2.2. Experimental Design

The two field experiments were conducted according to a split-plot design with four replications and two experimental factors (farming system and rotation scheme). The farming system (organic or conventional) was the main plot factor, and the rotation scheme was the sub-plot factor. The preceding crops used in this study were pea (P), faba bean (F) and cabbage (C), and thus, the rotation treatments were as follows: P-C, F-C and C-C. The landraces ‘AUAANDRO001’ and ‘AUALEFKADAfb001’ of Greek origin were chosen for pea and faba bean, respectively, and the hybrid ‘Krautkaiser F1′ was selected for the cabbage crop. The size of each sub-plot was 10.5 m2 (3 × 3.5 m), and the transplanting rate of the cabbage crop was 40 × 40 cm.
Cabbage seedlings were transplanted at the stage of 3 to 4 leaves on 30 October 2015 and on 19 September 2016. Moreover, legume sowing took place on 20 November 2014 and 12 November 2015, and cabbage cultivation, used as the preceding crop, was established on 15 November 2014. Prior to cabbage transplanting, the inorganic NPK fertilizer 11-15-15 (N-P2O5-K2O) was applied in the amount of 1.904 kg ha−1 in the conventional system, whereas dry sheep manure in the amount of 19.04 t ha−1 was applied in the organic farming system. The total N, P2O5, K2O, CaO and MgO contents in the sheep manure were 0.84%, 0.3%, 0.7%, 0.38% and 0.24%, respectively, as reported in our previous study [39]. Also, in the 2nd experiment season, a top-dressing application of fertilizers was performed at the end of November 2016. More specifically, 476.19 kg ha−1 of an inorganic water-soluble fertilizer (20-20-20; N-P2O5-K2O) and 952.19 kg ha−1 of an organic fertilizer (7-4-7 + 0.2; N-P2O5-K2O + B) were applied in the conventional and the organic farming systems, respectively. In both farming systems, weeds in cabbage plots were controlled via hand hoeing, which was performed at 30 and 60 days after transplanting, and no herbicides were applied.

2.3. Growth and Yield of Cabbage Crop

To determine the head fresh weight, head dry weight, dry matter content (DMC) and cabbage head yield, sixteen plants from each sub-plot were selected, avoiding border plants. For the measurement of the head dry weight and dry matter content, samples from collected heads were dried in an oven at 65 °C to a constant weight. Harvesting was conducted at the end of March and February in 2016 and 2017, respectively.

2.4. Nutrient Contents in Soil and Cabbage Plant Tissues

Soil samples were collected using a cylindrical auger (diameter: 10 cm, length: 20 cm) prior to cabbage establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage of cabbage (ΙS) and at the harvest stage (HS). The soil samples were dried and then sieved using a 2 mm stainless sieve. The contents of NO3−-N and NH4+-N, P and K in the soil samples were determined following the methods described by Ntatsi et al. [40,41] and Yfantopoulos et al. [39]. For the determination of the total N (%) in the soil, samples were collected prior to cabbage transplanting (PCE) and at the harvest stage (HS). The soil samples were air-dried and sieved using a stainless sieve (<0.14 mm) before the analysis via the Kjeldahl method.
For the determination of the N, P and K contents in the cabbage dry head tissues, samples were collected at the final harvest stage and dried in a forced-air oven at 65 °C to a constant weight. Then, the samples were ground to a powder using a suitable laboratory mill. Moreover, for P and K determination, the plant samples were first dry-ashed (550 °C) and then extracted with hydrogen chloride (HCl, 1 N). The Kjeldahl method was applied for N determination. Moreover, the P content was determined using a microplate spectrophotometer (Anthos Zenyth 200; Biochrom, Holliston, MA 01746-1388, USA), whereas the K content was determined via flame photometry (Sherwood Model 410, Cambridge, UK).

2.5. Statistical Analysis

To evaluate the effects of the farming system (main factor) and preceding crop (subplot factor), as well as the interactions between them, a two-factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the STATISTICA software package, version 9.0 for Windows (StatSoft Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA). After the analysis of variance, the means of all evaluated parameters (cabbage and soil) were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test at p ≤ 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Cabbage Growth

In the first growing season, a significant interaction between the farming system and the rotation scheme was found for the head fresh and dry weight, with the lowest values recorded in the organic C-C plots. The fresh and dry weights of the heads were affected by the farming system and the rotation scheme. More specifically, higher head fresh weights and dry weights were recorded in the conventionally grown plots compared to the organically grown plots. Regarding the rotation scheme, higher head fresh and dry weights were recorded when faba bean and pea were the preceding crops compared to the C-C treatment (Table 1). Moreover, in the second growing season, the application of organic fertilization resulted in decreased fresh and dry head weights by 14.2% and 17.6%, respectively, compared to the conventional farming system. No interaction among the applied treatments were found, and the impact of the rotation scheme was insignificant for the two above-mentioned growth parameters (Table 2).
The dry matter content (DMC) of the heads, estimated at the harvest stage, was unaffected by the treatments applied and ranged from 8.17% to 8.83% in the first growing season and from 8.62% to 9.13% in the second growing season.

3.2. Cabbage Head Yield

The statistical analysis of the head yield in the cabbage crop revealed significant interactions between the farming system and the rotation scheme applied. Specifically, in both growing seasons, the lowest head yield was recorded in plots where cabbage was cultivated as the preceding crop under the organic farming system (57 t ha−1 and 53.87 t ha−1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, respectively) (Table 3). Moreover, in the conventional system, there were no statistically significant differences between the preceding crop treatments, and the cabbage head yield ranged from 67.06 to 73.12 t ha−1. In the organic farming system, the increase in the cabbage head yield reached up to 21.1% when pea was the preceding crop compared to the C-C treatment.

3.3. Soil Nitrate, Ammonium and Total Nitrogen Content

In 2015/2016, prior to cabbage transplanting (PCE) and at the intermediate growth stage (IS) of cabbage, the highest soil NO3−-N content was recorded in the conventional farming system plots where pea was the preceding crop. However, no significant differences were observed at the harvest stage of the cabbage crop among the treatments applied. In the case of the ammonium (NH4+-N) content in the soil, our results show that both the farming system and preceding crop had no impact on this parameter. The ammonium content in the soil ranged from 4.7 to 6.0 mg kg−1 (Table 4).
In 2016/2017, the NO3−-N content in three cropping stages was significantly higher in the conventional farming system compared to that in the organic farming system. Regarding the impact of the preceding crop used in the rotation scheme, our results indicate that the C-C treatment significantly reduced the NO3−-N soil content compared to both legumes used in the rotation scheme. Regarding the second growing season, the NH4+-N content was lower only during the intermediate growth stage (IS) when plants were grown under organic farming practices. No significant interaction was found for the treatments applied (Table 5).
In both growing seasons and for all sampling stages, significantly higher soil total N levels were recorded when faba bean and pea were the preceding crops compared to cabbage. Moreover, no differences among the different legumes used in this study were recorded. In the second growing season, in both crop stages (PCE and HS), the soil total N levels were significantly higher in the organic farming system, and in the first growing season, no significant differences between the two farming systems were recorded (Table 6).

3.4. Soil Phosphorus and Potassium Contents

In both experimental seasons, the soil P content was higher in the conventional farming system compared to that in the organic farming system (Table 7). More specifically, the P content increased up to 26.5% and 25.6% in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, respectively. The impact of the rotation scheme applied was insignificant, and no interaction among the tested parameters was recorded.
In the case of the soil potassium content, the highest values were recorded in conventional farming systems in both seasons prior to crop establishment. Among the preceding crop treatments, a higher K content was measured in cabbage monocrop plots. The K content ranged from 132 mg kg−1 to 178 mg kg−1 and from 139 mg kg−1 to 178 mg kg−1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, respectively. In the second sampling stage (IS), the K content was lower compared to that in the first sampling date. Moreover, at the final harvest stage, in the first growing season, both factors affected the K content, with the highest values recorded in the conventional farming systems and in the C-C treatment. In the second growing season, no significant differences among the three preceding crop treatments were found (Table 8). Finally, at the harvest stage, the K content in all treatments ranged from 107 mg kg−1 to 121 mg kg−1 and from 107 mg kg−1 to 126 mg kg−1 in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, respectively. These values were lower than those recorded at the intermediate growth stage of cabbage.

3.5. Nutrient Content in Cabbage Head Tissues

In both experimental seasons, the total N, P and K contents in cabbage heads were affected only by the farming system (Table 9). More specifically, the total N value was higher in the conventional system by 13.3% and 8.6% in 2015/2016 and 2016/2017, respectively. Moreover, the conventional farming system increased the P and K contents in cabbage heads by up to 39.7% and 21.6%, respectively. The nutrient content in cabbage head tissue was not affected by the rotation scheme.

4. Discussion

4.1. Nutrient Content in Soil

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the rotation scheme and farming system on soil NO3−-N, NH4+-N, total N, P and K during two growing seasons. The results show that the NH4+-N content in the soil was not affected by the farming system and/or the rotation scheme applied. It is important to highlight that the NH4+-N content in the soil was higher at the intermediate growth stage of cabbage compared to that at the harvest stage. A similar trend was also found for the NO3−-N, P and K contents. These results clearly indicate that NO3−, NH4+, P and K uptake is higher during the head formation stage of cabbage, thereby leading to a reduced concentration in the soil. Hara and Sonoda [42] reported that nutrient content in plants significantly affects head formation, and consequently, the head yield may be reduced by 50% when the contents of N, P and K in the outer leaves are 1.3%, 0.1% and 0.3%, respectively.
In the present study, the use of inorganic fertilization led to a significant increase in the soil NO3−, NH4+, P and K compared to organic fertilization. These results are consistent with the study by Duarte et al. [12], who found that the application of 80 kg P2O5 ha−1 increased P by 75.9% in the soil samples collected from a cabbage crop at site 1 and by 29.6% at site 2. By comparing the contents of soil NO3−, NH4+, total N, P and K at the harvest stage with the corresponding values prior to the establishment of the crop, a reduction was found. In agreement with the above, Atanasova et al. [43] found a decrease in NO3−, NH4+, total N and K contents in the soil after cabbage harvesting, whereas the reverse was the case for P. By comparing the nutrient levels in the plots in which inorganic fertilization was applied (N-P2O5-K2O; 150 kg ha−1, 100 kg ha−1 and 100 kg ha−1) with those receiving organic fertilizers (farmyard manure at a rate of 24 t ha−1), Atanasova et al. [43] found that farmyard manure application led to the soil NO3−, NH4+, total N and P contents increasing, and no significant differences in the soil K content were found.
The results of the present study demonstrate that crop rotation can significantly impact the levels of soil NO3−, total N and K but not NH4+ and P soil contents. It is also important to point out that, in the conventional farming system, the three rotation schemes resulted in an increase in soil P and K contents compared to their initial levels of 28 mg kg−1 and 137 mg kg−1, respectively. This increase can be attributed to the application of high rates of inorganic fertilizers and the incorporation of pea and faba bean into the soil. According to Ma et al. [26], green manure application could result in increased available P and K soil contents when compared to fallow soil. Similar results for soil N, P and K contents were found with the incorporation of green manure originating from Vigna unguiculata L. Walp. [44]. However, the benefits of crop rotation to soil fertility and plant performance are species-dependent, with faba bean proving superior to field pea in crop rotation with broccoli or cauliflower, a result attributed to differences in soil N, P and K contents [45].
It is evident from the present study that legumes like field pea and faba bean were effective in increasing soil N levels, likely due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. This is supported by Stein et al. [46], who reported that pea and faba bean crops fixed 156 kg ha−1 and 195 kg ha−1, respectively. On the other hand, cabbage cultivation for two consecutive years led to lower NO3− and total N in the soil, since, as mentioned above, this crop had high demands for N. According to Ma et al. [26], legume green manure application increased soil NO3−-N content by 50% when compared to the fallow control treatment. In contrast to the N content in the soil, continuous cultivation of cabbage (C-C) increased the soil K content compared to the other two rotation schemes applied. This increase in K content is ascribed to the high rates of K application in the conventional farming system compared to the organic farming system (285.6 kg K2O ha−1 vs. 130 kg K2O ha−1).
Overall, this study suggests the combined application of inorganic fertilization and the inclusion of legumes in rotation schemes as an agronomic management practice that could contribute to improved soil fertility with subsequent benefits to the following cabbage crop.

4.2. Nutrient Content in Head Tissues

The N content in cabbage heads at the harvest stage varies between the growing seasons and ranges from 1.94% to 2.88%, as reported by Rosen et al. [15], and Duarte et al. [12] found that the P content in cabbage leaves ranges from 0.19 to 0.82%. In the present study, the total N content in cabbage tissues ranged from 3.07% to 3.61%, and the P and K contents ranged from 0.44% to 0.75% and from 2.33% to 3.28%, respectively. Inthichack et al. [47] observed that K content is strongly correlated with the position of the leaf in the cabbage head since a lower K content was found in the 10th inner leaf (3.61% to 4.81%) compared to the outside leaf of the head (4.34% to 6.96%). However, a wide range of 0.32% to 5.03% of K was reported in the outer leaves of cabbage plants by Hara and Sonoda [42]. The findings of the present study offer valuable information on the nutritional composition of cabbage with practical implications for optimizing fertilizer application, which could result in increased productivity and quality.
In the present study, no significant differences in head tissues’ nutrient contents between the preceding crops in both farming systems were found. This can be attributed to the high rates of inorganic and organic fertilizers. This is evident from the high N content in cabbage tissues, which were grown in highly fertile soil with organic matter of 10.79% and clay of 43.7%. Rosen et al. [15] demonstrated that doubling the N rate to 250 kg ha−1 resulted in a 17% increase in the N content in cabbage heads. Similarly, Duarte et al. [12] reported an increased P content in the leaves of this crop attributed to high P application, and Inthichack et al. [47] observed a positive correlation between the K fertilizer rate and K content in leaves. Our findings reveal significant differences in the total N, P and K contents between the two farming systems. Interestingly, the application of organic fertilizers resulted in lower values of these nutrients in both growing seasons. This can be attributed to the slow release of nutrients from organic fertilizers, particularly the manure used in this study. As Hartz et al. [48] reported, only 15% to 16% of organic nitrogen from the manure was mineralized after incubation at 25 °C and constant moisture for 12 and 24 weeks, respectively. This suggests that the use of organic fertilizers may not provide sufficient nutrients required for optimal cabbage growth and subsequent yield when compared to inorganic fertilizers. These findings should be taken into consideration when designing fertilization schemes, since the selection of the appropriate fertilizer type and application rate can result in improved nutrient contents without compromising environmental health.

4.3. Head Yield

Cabbage is a crop known for its high productivity, with yields often exceeding 130 t ha−1 [12]. However, in the present study, head yields ranged from 53.87 t ha−1 to 73.12 t ha−1 over two growing seasons. The ANOVA of our results revealed that both factors (rotation scheme and farming system) significantly affected the head yield, with an interaction between the two factors. Notably, in both growing seasons, the lowest yield was recorded in the C-C treatment under the organic farming system. This can be attributed to the high demands of the cabbage crop for N, P and K, as previously reported, in combination with the slow nutrient mineralization rate of the organic fertilizer. As a result, the plants’ nutrient needs were not sufficiently met during head formation in this farming system. Typically, inorganic fertilization leads to higher head yields in the cabbage crop compared to organic fertilization. Consistent with this, Atanasova et al. [43] reported that the highest yield of cabbage was obtained in the inorganic fertilization treatment (N-P2O5-K2O; 150 kg ha−1, 100 kg ha−1, and 100 kg ha−1) compared to the farmyard manure treatment (24 t ha−1). However, the combination of inorganic and organic fertilizers can result in higher or equal yields to inorganic fertilizer, depending on the ratio of inorganic to organic fertilizer [7].
Contrary to the organic farming system, in the conventional farming system, no statistical differences between the use of different species as the preceding crop were found, likely due to the high application rate of inorganic fertilizer 11-15-15, which covers the crops’ needs for the macronutrients N, P and K. Also, in the organic farming system, no significant differences between pea and faba bean were recorded, since the two species exhibit a high nitrogen fixation ability and thus constitute a good N source for the subsequent crop. In 2015, prior to cabbage crop establishment, the amount of biologically fixed N from faba bean landrace AUALEFKADAfb001, which was subsequently incorporated into the soil, was 183,2 kg ha−1 (average of two farming systems), and in 2016, the fixed N of faba bean was 187.5 kg ha−1 (average of two farming systems) [40]. Similarly, the fixed N of pea landrace AUAANDRO001 was 69.1 kg ha−1 and 87.1 kg ha−1 in 2015 and 2016, respectively [41]. Stein et al. [46] observed that the incorporation of pea (156 kg ha−1) and faba bean (195 kg ha−1) into the soil significantly increased the head yield of the cabbage crop compared to control plots with bare soil or plots with rye (Secale cereale L.). Additionally, Sallaku et al. [45] reported that the use of pea and faba bean as preceding crops in rotation schemes with cauliflower and broccoli resulted in enhanced yields compared to the use of wheat as the preceding crop, a result mostly attributed to the increase in the total N, P and K contents in the soil.
As expected, the results for the head weight (fresh or dry) were similar to those obtained for the head yield, whereas the dry matter content at the harvest stage was not affected by either factor. It is important to highlight that the head fresh weight was low, ranging from 912 g to 1159.7 g. It is well documented that the planting date affects both the yield and head weight [49]. Indeed, early planting during summer (July and August) can result in heavier heads due to the promotion of photosynthesis and the subsequent production of assimilates. On the other hand, crop transplanting during fall (September or October) could lead to lighter heads with weights ranging from 1.34 to 1.42 kg [50].

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, our study revealed a strong relationship between the choice of the preceding crop in a rotation scheme, soil fertility and cabbage growth. The utilization of pea and faba bean as preceding crops resulted in increased levels of soil NO3−-N and total N, attributed to the high nitrogen fixation ability of these legumes. Conversely, mono-cropping cabbage for two subsequent years (C-C) led to an increased soil K content due to the increased application of inorganic fertilizers. It is worth noting that no significant differences in the soil P content were found between the different preceding crops. Additionally, the use of inorganic fertilizer in the conventional farming systems led to significant differences in soil fertility. In the organic farming systems, a yield decrease was found for the head yield in the C-C treatment. This clearly demonstrates that the slow nutrient mineralization rate of organic fertilizers cannot meet the high nutrient demands of cabbage during head formation. This highlights the necessity of applying tailored fertilizers that meet crop requirements, thereby enhancing product quality, particularly nutrient content. In light of these findings, the optimization of cabbage production necessitates careful consideration of both the preceding crop and the farming system. Moreover, besides crop nutrient requirements, local climate conditions should also be taken into consideration when designing sustainable and efficient cabbage cultivation strategies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.N. and D.S.; methodology, D.Y., G.N., A.K. and D.S.; software, D.Y., G.N. and A.K.; validation, D.Y., G.N., A.K. and D.S.; formal analysis, D.Y., G.N. and A.K.; investigation, D.Y., G.N., A.K. and D.S.; resources, D.S.; data curation, D.Y., G.N., A.K. and D.S.; writing—original draft preparation, D.Y., G.N. and A.K.; writing—review and editing, D.Y., G.N., A.K. and D.S.; visualization, D.Y., G.N. and A.K.; supervision, G.N. and D.S.; project administration, D.S.; funding acquisition, D.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the European Commission within the FP7 Research Project ‘EUROLEGUME-Enhancing of legumes growing in Europe through sustainable cropping for protein supply for food and feed’ (Grant Agreement No. 613781).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Impact of the farming system (FS) (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the cabbage head fresh weight, head dry weight and dry matter content (DMC) at the harvest stage in the 1st experiment.
Table 1. Impact of the farming system (FS) (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the cabbage head fresh weight, head dry weight and dry matter content (DMC) at the harvest stage in the 1st experiment.
Farming
System		Rotation Scheme1st Experiment: 2015–2016
Head Fresh Weight (g head−1)Head Dry Weight (g head−1)DMC (%)
OrganicC-C912 b77.61 b8.51
P-C1082 ab89.56 ab8.28
F-C1046 ab85.86 ab8.21
ConventionalC-C1159 a94.72 a8.17
P-C1073 ab94.77 a8.83
F-C1156 a98.98 a8.56
Main effects
Organic101384.348.33
Conventional112996.168.52
C-C103686.178.32
P-C107892.178.55
F-C110192.428.39
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)***ns
Rotation scheme (RS)**ns
FS × RS**ns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. * and **, significant at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively. ns = non-significant.
Table 2. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the cabbage head fresh weight, head dry weight and dry matter content (DMC) at the harvest stage in the 2nd experiment.
Table 2. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the cabbage head fresh weight, head dry weight and dry matter content (DMC) at the harvest stage in the 2nd experiment.
Farming
System		Rotation Scheme2nd Experiment: 2016–2017
Head Fresh Weight
(g head−1)		Head Dry Weight
(g head−1)		DMC (%)
Main effects
Organic 995.3186.188.66
Conventional 1159.70104.659.02
C-C1007.9592.089.13
P-C1100.2097.208.84
F-C1124.3796.978.62
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)****ns
Rotation scheme (RS)nsnsns
FS × RSnsnsns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. * and ***, significant at p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, respectively. ns = non-significant.
Table 3. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the cabbage total head yield (t ha−1) in two experimental seasons.
Table 3. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the cabbage total head yield (t ha−1) in two experimental seasons.
Farming SystemRotation SchemeTotal Head Yield (t ha−1)
2015–20162016–2017
OrganicC-C57.00 c53.87 d
P-C67.63 b64.31 c
F-C65.38 b68.31 b
ConventionalC-C72.44 a72.06 a
P-C67.06 b73.12 a
F-C72.25 a72.18 a
Main effects
Organic63.3362.16
Conventional70.5872.45
C-C64.7262.96
P-C67.3468.71
F-C68.8170.25
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)******
Rotation scheme (RS)*****
FS × RS******
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. ** and ***, significant at p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively.
Table 4. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil NO3−-N and NH4+-N concentrations prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in the 1st experimental season.
Table 4. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil NO3−-N and NH4+-N concentrations prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in the 1st experimental season.
Farming
System		Rotation SchemeNO3−-N (mg kg−1)NH4+-N (mg kg−1)
PCEISHSPCEISHS
OrganicC-C13.9 b14.714.64.75.35.2
P-C14.7 b16.115.45.55.95.8
F-C15.1 b16.815.65.35.95.8
ConventionalC-C14.4 b15.615.35.25.75.4
P-C19.3 a19.919.05.35.95.3
F-C15.2 b15.715.25.86.05.7
Main effects
Organic 14.615.915.25.25.75.6
Conventional 16.317.116.55.45.95.5
C-C14.215.2 b15.05.05.55.3
P-C17.018.0 a17.25.45.95.6
F-C15.216.3 ab15.45.66.05.8
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)**nsnsnsnsns
Rotation scheme (RS)***nsnsnsns
FS × RS*nsnsnsnsns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. * and **, significant at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively. ns = non-significant.
Table 5. Impact of the farming system (FS) (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil NO3−-N and NH4+-N contents prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in the 2nd experimental season.
Table 5. Impact of the farming system (FS) (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil NO3−-N and NH4+-N contents prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in the 2nd experimental season.
Farming
System		Rotation SchemeNO3−-N (mg kg−1 DW)NH4+-N (mg kg−1 DW)
PCEISHSPCEISHS
Organic 14.314.214.04.34.03.9
Conventional 15.315.415.04.94.84.5
C-C13.7 c13.6 b13.4 b4.64.54.1
P-C15.6 a15.5 a14.9 ab4.74.64.5
F-C15.2 b15.2 ab15.2 a4.64.24.1
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)****ns*ns
Rotation scheme (RS)*******nsnsns
FS × RSnsnsnsnsnsns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. *, ** and ***, significant at p < 0.05, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively. ns = non-significant.
Table 6. Impact of the farming system (FS) (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the soil total N (%) content prior to crop establishment (PCE) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in two experimental seasons.
Table 6. Impact of the farming system (FS) (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on the soil total N (%) content prior to crop establishment (PCE) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in two experimental seasons.
Farming
System		Rotation SchemeSoil Total N (%)
2015–20162016–2017
PCEHSPCEHS
OrganicC-C0.4460.491 c0.5280.525
P-C0.4810.546 a0.5660.554
F-C0.4940.548 a0.5390.557
ConventionalC-C0.4370.514 b0.5080.529
P-C0.5190.533 ab0.5270.525
F-C0.5110.531 ab0.5500.542
Main effects
Organic0.4740.5280.544 a0.545 a
Conventional0.4890.5260.528 b0.532 b
C-C0.442 b0.5030.518 b0.527 b
P-C0.500 a0.5400.547 a0.540 ab
F-C0.503 a0.5390.545 a0.550 a
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)nsns**
Rotation scheme (RS)********
FS × RSns*nsns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. *, ** and ***, significant at p < 0.05, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively. ns = non-significant.
Table 7. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil P content prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in two experimental seasons.
Table 7. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil P content prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in two experimental seasons.
Farming SystemRotation SchemeP (mg kg−1)
2015–20162016–2017
PCEISHSPCEISHS
Main effects
Organic43.0 b54.5 b41.1 b52.1 b58.137.1 b
Conventional58.5 a63.7 a53.1 a63.1 a57.049.9 a
C-C50.462.144.958.157.542.8
P-C51.757.548.654.356.445.5
F-C50.257.647.860.458.842.2
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)****ns***
Rotation scheme (RS)nsnsnsnsnsns
FS × RSnsnsnsnsnsns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. * and ***, significant at p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, respectively. ns = non-significant.
Table 8. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil K content (mg kg−1) prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in two experimental seasons.
Table 8. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) and crop rotation scheme (RS) (cabbage, pea and faba bean: C, P and F, respectively) on soil K content (mg kg−1) prior to crop establishment (PCE), in the intermediate growth stage (IS) and at the harvest stage (HS) of the cabbage crop in two experimental seasons.
Farming SystemRotation SchemeK (mg kg−1 DW)
2015–20162016–2017
PCEISHSPCEISHS
OrganicC-C142136 c114150131109
P-C132128 d107139125111
F-C133126 d108139121107
ConventionalC-C178159 a121178155126
P-C173143 b116170145120
F-C168136 c117168136115
Main effects
Organic136 b130110143 b126 b109 b
Conventional173 a146118172 a145 a120 a
C-C160 a148118 a164 a143 a118
P-C153 b136112 b155 b135 b116
F-C151 b131113 b154 b129 c111
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)******************
Rotation scheme (RS)**************ns
FS × RSns*nsnsnsns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. *, ** and ***, significant at p < 0.05, p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively. ns = non-significant.
Table 9. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) on total N (%), P (%) and K (%) contents in cabbage heads (dry basis) at the harvest stage in two experimental seasons.
Table 9. Impact of the farming system (organic or conventional) on total N (%), P (%) and K (%) contents in cabbage heads (dry basis) at the harvest stage in two experimental seasons.
Farming SystemRotation Scheme2015–20162016–2017
N (%)P (%)K (%)N (%)P (%)K (%)
Main effects
Organic3.13 b0.46 b2.33 b3.07 b0.44 b2.57 b
Conventional3.61 a0.75 a2.85 a3.36 a0.73 a3.28 a
C-C3.450.582.613.260.562.95
P-C3.280.562.543.160.542.84
F-C3.380.682.633.210.663.00
Statistical significance
Farming system (FS)**************
Rotation scheme (RS)nsnsnsnsnsns
FS × RSnsnsnsnsnsns
Means (n = 4) followed by different letters within the same column indicate significant differences for each factor according to Duncan’s multiple range test. * and ***, significant at p < 0.05 and p < 0.001, respectively. ns = non-significant.
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Yfantopoulos, D.; Ntatsi, G.; Karkanis, A.; Savvas, D. Evaluation of the Role of Legumes in Crop Rotation Schemes of Organic or Conventionally Cultivated Cabbage. Agronomy 2024, 14, 297. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14020297

AMA Style

Yfantopoulos D, Ntatsi G, Karkanis A, Savvas D. Evaluation of the Role of Legumes in Crop Rotation Schemes of Organic or Conventionally Cultivated Cabbage. Agronomy. 2024; 14(2):297. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14020297

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yfantopoulos, Dionisios, Georgia Ntatsi, Anestis Karkanis, and Dimitrios Savvas. 2024. "Evaluation of the Role of Legumes in Crop Rotation Schemes of Organic or Conventionally Cultivated Cabbage" Agronomy 14, no. 2: 297. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14020297

APA Style

Yfantopoulos, D., Ntatsi, G., Karkanis, A., & Savvas, D. (2024). Evaluation of the Role of Legumes in Crop Rotation Schemes of Organic or Conventionally Cultivated Cabbage. Agronomy, 14(2), 297. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14020297

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