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Article

Effect of Ridge–Furrow with Plastic Film Mulching System and Different Nitrogen Fertilization Rates on Lodging Resistance of Spring Maize in Loess Plateau China

by
Yan Zhang
1,
Yufeng Lv
2,
Yuncheng Liao
2 and
Guangxin Zhang
2,*
1
College of Urban and Rural Construction, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
2
College of Agriculture, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2024, 14(6), 1298; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061298
Submission received: 6 May 2024 / Revised: 1 June 2024 / Accepted: 11 June 2024 / Published: 15 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Soil Tillage and Fertilizer Management on Production of Cereal Crops)
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Abstract

:
The ridge–furrow with plastic film mulching (RF) system has been widely adopted in rain-fed crop planting due to its potential to enhance crop yield and water use efficiency. However, the impact of the RF system on maize lodging resistance, particularly when nitrogen fertilizer is applied, remains uncertain. Therefore, a two-year field experiment was carried out with two planting systems (FP: flat planting and RF) and two nitrogen application rates (N180: 180 kg·N ha−1 and N300: 300 kg·N ha−1) to assess the risk of lodging in maize. The results showed that compared to FP, RF resulted in a significant increase of 78.7% in lodging rate. In addition, the lodging rate increased by 22.6% with increasing nitrogen fertilizer application. The lignin content increased by 43.4%, while the stalk bending strength rose by 42.5%, under RF compared to the FP system. These improvements in the mechanical properties of maize stalks contributed to the improved lodging resistance index of RF, which was found to be approximately 21.3% higher than that of FP. In addition, high nitrogen application rates increased the risk of lodging for different planting patterns over two years. In conclusion, fertilization of spring maize with 300 kg·N ha−1 under the RF system led to higher yields but increased lodging rates. The risk of lodging should be considered when planting maize under the RF system. The results of this study can provide scientific basis and technical support for the optimization of rain-fed maize cultivation measures in the Loess Plateau.

1. Introduction

It is projected that by 2050, global food production needs to increase by 56% to meet the demand arising from population growth [1]. Maize (Zea mays L.), as the world’s most important grain crop, accounts for 36.8% of China’s total grain crop planting area and ranks first in production [2,3]. Over the past 20 years, the increase in planting area has contributed 70% to the total growth in China’s maize yield, while per-unit yield improvements have only contributed 30% [4]. Thus, in the context where further expansion of planting area is challenging, enhancing per-unit yield becomes crucial for increasing total maize production.
Maize, a tall-stalked crop, often experiences the risk of lodging disasters during its growth period, adversely affecting the per-unit yield [5]. Lodging results from a combination of adverse environmental conditions and insufficient mechanical parameters [6,7]. It is categorized into stalk lodging and root lodging [8]. The incidence of stalk lodging is related to the mechanical properties of the basal internodes (puncture strength and bending resistance of the basal stalk) and above-ground apparent traits (plant height, center of gravity height, length and diameter of basal internodes) [9,10,11]. Root lodging, on the other hand, primarily depends on the anchoring strength of the root system [12]. Improper field management practices, such as excessive nitrogen fertilizer application [13,14,15] and overly high planting density [11], are significant factors in lodging. Once lodging occurs, it significantly inhibits the plant’s photosynthesis, water and nutrient absorption and transport, and slowing the grain filling rate, affecting dry matter accumulation and ultimately reducing grain yield [16,17]. In addition, lodging increases the difficulty of mechanical harvesting and the incidence of pests and diseases [18], thereby increasing production costs [14]. Meanwhile, N application is an essential agronomic management measure because it contributes more than 45% to food production [19]. Consequently, optimizing field management practices to reduce the risk of maize lodging is urgently needed.
Undoubtedly, due to the constraints of water resources and the resulting series of negative effects, rain-fed maize yields are lower compared to irrigated maize [20]. However, dryland maize presents a greater potential (114.3–180%) for per-unit yield improvement [21]. In the rain-fed maize production of China’s Loess Plateau region, ridge–furrow mulching planting, an efficient water-catchment and water-saving cultivation method, is widely adopted to mitigate water scarcity issues [22]. Ridge–furrow with plastic film (RF) systems consist of alternating furrows and ridges covered with film, which have a greater rainwater harvesting capacity, and overlays can block soil evaporation, allowing more water to be retained in the soil [23,24]. This planting system is conducive to the accumulation of runoff, the conversion of ineffective rainfall into effective rainfall, and the eventual improvement of rainfall utilization rate [25]. In addition, the RF system is able to maintain a high soil temperature in the event of low temperatures. If it happens to be the seedling stage at this time, the crop emergence rate can be improved [26]. The RF system increased soil moisture, improved soil temperature, and ultimately increased water and nutrient utilization, resulting in better crop growth and crop yields increased by 34.4–71.3% [25]. Currently, most research focuses on aspects such as water use efficiency, soil environment, crop yield, and resource utilization efficiency under this planting system [22,23,24]. However, there is scant research on the lodging risk of maize under this system, especially at varying nitrogen application levels.
We hypothesized that ridge mulching increased the lodging resistance of spring maize and was affected by the nitrogen application level. Based on the above, a two-year field experiment was conducted with rainfed spring maize in the Loess Plateau, and the aim of the present study was: (i) ascertain the impact of ridge–furrow mulching planting and nitrogen application on stalk and root lodging in spring maize; (ii) determine the response of stalk lignin content, its synthetic enzymes, and mechanical properties to ridge–furrow mulching planting and nitrogen applications; and (iii) provide empirical and theoretical support for the rationalization of field management practices in rainfed spring maize production on the Loess Plateau.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Site and Description

The experiment was carried out at the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Changwu Agricultural Ecological Experiment Station (35°12′ N; 107°40′ E and at an altitude of 1200 m a.s.l.) in 2020 and 2021. The experimental station falls under a semi-humid continental monsoon climate, with an average yearly temperature of 9.1 °C and average annual precipitation of 584.1 mm, scattered unevenly among different seasons. During the growth period of spring maize in 2020 and 2021, there was a rainfall of 395.2 mm and 462.4 mm, respectively (Figure 1). The soil at the experiment site was analyzed before the first year, and the results showed that the soil was sticky black loam (Alfisol in U.S. taxonomy) with topsoil measuring 0–20 cm, containing an alkaline hydrolysis nitrogen content of 52.3 mg·kg−1, an available phosphorus content of 11.1 mg·kg−1, an available potassium content of 155.0 mg·kg−1, a total phosphorus content of 0.7 mg·kg−1, an organic matter content of 11.6 mg·kg−1, a pH value of 8.4, and a groundwater depth of approximately 25–60 m.

2.2. Experimental Design and Field Management

The experiment was conducted as a two-factor random block design, with nitrogen application rate (NR) and planting systems (PS) as the main factors. The planting systems included flat planting (FP) and RF, while the nitrogen application rate comprised 180 kg N ha−1 (N180) and 300 kg N ha−1 (N300), with urea for nitrogen fertilizer. There were 4 treatments in the experiment with 3 replicates for each treatment for a total of 12 plots, and the plot area was 42 m2 (6 m × 7 m). The commonly used maize hybrid was used in the trials: the comparatively taller-stem Xianyu 335 (XY) with underdeveloped root system, with a planting density of 72,713 plants · ha−1. In the growing seasons of 2020 and 2021, maize was sown on 10 May and 5 May, respectively, and artificially harvested on 5 October and 29 September, respectively. For FP, the row spacing was set at 55 cm. In ridge–furrow mulching, ridges, and furrows were manually formed, with 0.008 mm thick transparent polyethylene plastic film covering the ridges (Figure 2). The maize was sown at the junction of the ridge and furrow, under the film, with a ridge to furrow ratio of 70 cm: 40 cm. The application rates for phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium fertilizer (K2O) were 90 kg·ha−1 each. All fertilizers were applied as basal fertilizers. After the harvest of the 2020 growing season, we endeavored to sustain the condition of the film on the ridges in order to conserve soil moisture and gather rainfall throughout the fallow phase. The planting mode was one cropping per year. Before the start of the 2021 growing season, the residual film was removed, the land was re-tilled, and a new plastic film was laid. No supplementary irrigation was performed during both growth periods. Artificial pest control was used and the plots were weeded during the whole growth period.

2.3. Sampling and Measurements

2.3.1. Plant Morphology

At the stage of silking (Vt), three spring maize plants were randomly chosen from each plot. The plants were severed at their point of ground contact, and their height was measured precisely with a ruler. A tape measure was used to measure from the base to the ear position to determine the ear height. The ear position coefficient (%) was calculated as follows: ear position coefficient = ear height/plant height × 100 [8]. Three maize plants were randomly selected, and the plants were cut down horizontally along the ground (with ears, leaves and sheaths). The plants were lifted horizontally with the index finger to keep them balanced and not inclined. The distance between the position of the finger and the base of the stalk was the height of the center of gravity [8]. The center of gravity height refers to the distance from the base of the maize stalk to the balance point.

2.3.2. Morphological Characteristics and Mechanical Parameters of the Third Internode at the Base

After measuring the above plant morphology, the third internode at the base of each plant was taken for measurement of its length and diameter. Then, the fresh weight of this internode was recorded, followed by drying in an oven at 80 °C to a constant weight. The dry weight of this internode divided by its length was used to calculate the mass density. At the silking stage and milk stage (R3), three maize plants were randomly selected from each plot to measure the bending resistance, breaking strength and rind penetration strength of the third internode by using the stalk strength tester (Zhejiang Top Instrument Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, China) [8].

2.3.3. Root Pulling Force

At the silking stage, spring maize plants were cut 20 cm above the ground using pruning shears, and the base of the plant was secured to a root-pulling force meter (Beijing Jinyang Wanda Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) with a rope. The roots were pulled out using an upward force, and the peak force recorded by the meter represents the root pulling force.

2.3.4. Stalk Lodging Resistance Index and Lodging Rate

The formula [8] for calculating the stalk lodging resistance index was as follows:
Stalk lodging resistance index = Bending resistance of the third internode at the base of the stalk/Center of gravity height.
Before harvest, the number of lodged plants in each plot was counted, and the lodging rate for each plot was calculated using the following formulas [8]:
Stalk lodging rate (%) = Number of stalk lodging plants/Total number of plants × 100%
Root lodging rate (%) = Number of root lodging plants/Total number of plants × 100%
Total lodging rate (%) = Stalk lodging rate + Root lodging rate.

2.3.5. Lignin Content and Synthase Activity

Three stalks marked during the dough stage were selected from each plot. One stalk was used for lignin-related synthase measurement: the second and third internodes of the stalk, stripped of leaf sheaths, were placed in liquid nitrogen for 30 min and then stored in a −40 °C freezer. The activities of tyrosine ammonia lyase (TAL), phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogen lyase (CAD) in the second and third internodes of the maize base were measured using a kit (Suzhou Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Suzhou, China). The remaining two internodes, after removal of leaf sheaths and drying at 80 °C, were ground in a mill and then used for lignin content measurement using the same kit [7].

2.3.6. Yield and Yield Components

During the spring maize harvest of 2020 and 2021, 15 maize ears were randomly selected at random from each plot for indoor analysis. This included an investigation of ear length, ear thickness, row number per ear, grain number per row, 100-grain weight, and barren tip length. Post-threshing, the grain seed’s moisture content was measured, and subsequently converted to yield with a moisture content of 14%.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Differences between N treatments and planting systems were assessed by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 20 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). The means were compared using the least significant difference test at p = 0.05 and p = 0.01 (LSD 0.05 and LSD 0.01). Pearson’s correlation analysis was also performed using SPSS 16.0.

3. Results

3.1. Lodging-Related Apparent Characters of Spring Maize

3.1.1. Agronomic Characteristics

The RF system significantly increases the center of gravity height of spring maize (Figure 3a,b) and plant height (Figure 3c,d) of spring maize. In 2020 and 2021, at the N180 nitrogen level, compared to the FP system, the plant height in the RF system increased by 13.3% and 21.3%, and the center of gravity height increased by 6.8% and 5.8%, respectively. At the N300 level, compared to the FP system, the increases were 14.5% and 12.46% in plant height and 13.0% and 15.0% in the center of gravity height, respectively. In 2020 and 2021, at the N300 level, the average increase in plant height compared to N180 was 6.45% and 3.0%, and the increase in center of gravity height was 17.4% and 7.9%, respectively.
In 2020 and 2021, compared to the FP system, at the N180 nitrogen level, the ear height of spring maize in the RF system increased by 13.6% and 22.1%, respectively (Figure 3e,f); at the N300 level, the increases were 13.5% and 13.2%, respectively. Compared to the N180 level, in 2020 at the N300 level, the average increase in ear height for spring maize under both RF and FP systems was 7.3%, and in 2021 it was 3.1%. Compared to the N180 level, the average increase in ear position coefficient over two years at the N300 level was 0.7% (Figure 3g,h). Compared to the FP system, the average increase in ear position coefficient over two years of the RF system was 1.6%.
In 2020 and 2021, at the N180 level, compared to the FP system, the above-ground fresh weight of spring maize in the RF system increased by 59.4% and 29.3%, respectively (Figure 3i,j); at the N300 level, the increases were 40.2% and 38.5%, respectively. In 2020 and 2021, under the FP system, compared to the N180 level, the above-ground fresh weight of spring maize at the N300 level increased by 22.6% and 10.1%, respectively; under the RF system at the N300 level, the increases were 7.9% and 18.0%, respectively.

3.1.2. Physical Properties of the Third Stalk Node at the Base

In 2020 and 2021, at the N180 level, compared to the FP system, the diameter of the third internode at the base of spring maize stalks increased by 9.1% and 13.0%, respectively, in the RF system (Table 1). Additionally, there was a significant increase in internode length by 41.4% and 61.8%, respectively, while at the N300 level, there were increases of 4.1% and 7.9% in diameter and an even more substantial increase in internode length by 46.4% and 58.2%, respectively.
In 2020 and 2021, compared to the N180 level, the average increase in diameter of the third internode at the stalk base of spring maize was 6.3% and 1.4% under FP and RF systems at the N300 level, respectively. Additionally, there was a respective increase in internode length of 14.7% and 14.1%. At the N180 level, under the RF system, there was a significant increase in fresh weight (41.4%) and dry weight (23.2%) of the third internode at the stalk base of spring maize, whereas at the N300 level, under FP system conditions, there were increases in fresh weight (46.4%) and dry weight (16.7%). Furthermore, when comparing with results from N180 levels, it was observed that at N300 levels there were average increases in fresh weight for both FP (12.0%) and RF systems (12.7%), as well as increases in dry weight for FP (19.1%) and RF systems (15.5%).
In 2020 and 2021, at the N180 nitrogen level, the mass density of the third internode of the stalk base in spring maize decreased by 19.6% and 29.1% under the RF system, respectively, compared to the FP system. At the N300 level, the mass density in the FP system decreased by 23.0% and 24.7%, respectively. In 2021, compared to the N180 level, the mass density of the third internode of the stalk base in spring maize increased by 5.1% and 8.1% under FP and RF systems at the N300 level, respectively.

3.2. Mechanical Characteristics of Spring Maize

3.2.1. Breaking Strength and Rind Penetration Strength

The nitrogen application rate (NR) and planting system (PS) had a significant effect (p < 0.01) on the bending resistance of the third internode of the stalk base in spring maize (Table 2). Compared to the FP system, the bending resistance of the third internode of the stalk base in spring maize increased by 41.2% and 30.09% under the RF system, respectively. The increases at the N300 level were 9.29% and 9.04%, respectively, compared to the N180 level.
In comparison to the FP system, the RF system resulted in a 21.04% and 16.84% increase in epidermal penetration strength of the third internode at the stalk base in spring maize. Similarly, at the N300 level, there was an increase of 5.37% and 7.36% compared to the N180 level.

3.2.2. Up Rooting Strength

In 2020 and 2021, at the N180 level, compared to the FP system, the root pulling force of spring maize under the RF system increased by 107.7% and 56.0%, respectively (Figure 4); at the N300 level, the increases were 71.4% and 51.2%, respectively. Compared to the N180 level, the average increase in root pulling force of spring maize under both FP and RF systems at the N300 level was 30.27% and 17.19%, respectively.

3.3. Lodging Rate and Lodging Resistance Index

3.3.1. Lodging Rate

Nitrogen application rate had no significant effect on stalk lodging rates but had a significant impact on lodging rates, which was the same as the interaction between nitrogen application rate and planting system (Table 3). At the N180 level, compared with the FP system, the stalk lodging rate, root lodging rate, and total lodging rate of spring maize under the RF system increased by 25.2%, 112.2%, and 66.5%, respectively. At the N300 level, compared with the FP system, the stalk lodging rate, root lodging rate, and total lodging rate of spring maize increased by 37.83%, 128.94%, and 91.06% under the RF system, respectively.

3.3.2. Clum Lodging Resistance Index

Nitrogen application rate and planting system had significant effects on the clum lodging resistance index of spring maize (p < 0.01) (Figure 5). During the Vt and R3 stages, at the N180 level, compared to the FP system the clum lodging resistance index of spring maize increased by an average of 33.16% and 9.39% in the RF system over two years. At the N300 level, the corresponding increase was 32.17% and 12.23%, respectively. In 2020, during the Vt and R3 stages, the clum lodging resistance index decreased by 0.42% and 1.04% under the N300 level, respectively, when compared to the N180 level (Figure 5a,b).

3.4. Stalk Lignin and Related Synthase of Spring Maize

In 2020 and 2021, the lignin content in the stalk of spring maize significantly increased by 39.29% and 47.74% under the N180 level, and under the RF system, respectively, compared to the FP system (Figure 6a). Similarly, under the N300 level, the lignin content significantly increased by 3.18% and 32.40% under the FP and RF systems, respectively.
In 2020 and 2021, the activities of PAL, TAL, and CAD enzymes in the stalk of spring maize under the RF system increased significantly compared to the FP system (Figure 6b–d). Specifically, under the N180 level, PAL and TAL increased by 54.08% and 49.48%, while CAD increased by 33.13% and 40.67%. Under the N300 level, PAL and TAL increased by 58.85% and 60.20%, while CAD increased by 22.52% and 22.87%. Compared to the N180 level, the average increases in PAL, TAL, and CAD enzyme activities in the stalk of spring maize under both FP and RF systems under the N300 level were 23.80%, 22.21%, and 10.42% for PAL, TAL, and CAD, respectively. Additionally, the slopes of the regression equations for PAL, TAL and CAD enzyme activities and lignin content were 3.18, 0.04 and 0.01, respectively (Figure 6b–d), indicating a positive correlation between enzyme activity and lignin content.

3.5. Spring Maize Yield

Compared with the FP system, the RF system increased spring maize yield by increasing the number of grains per ear, the weight of 100 grains, and the number of ears per ha (Table 4). In 2020 and 2021, under the N180 level, spring maize yield under the RF system increased by 2.64 t·ha−1 and 2.89 t·ha−1, respectively, compared with the FP system. Under the N300 level, spring maize yield under the RF system increased by 2.88 t·ha−1 and 2.93 t·ha−1, respectively, compared with the FP system. In 2020, compared with the N180 level, spring maize yields under FP and RF systems increased by 1.36 t·ha−1 and 1.6 t·ha−1, respectively, under the N300 level. In 2021, compared with the N180 level, spring maize yields under the FP and RF systems increased by 0.80 t·ha−1 and 0.84 t·ha−1, respectively, under the N300 level. In 2020, compared with the N180 level, the number of grains per ear and ear number of spring maize under the N300 level average increased by 4.38% and 13.48%, respectively, with no significant difference in 100-grain weight. In 2021, compared with the N180 level, the N300 level of spring maize grain number increased by 10.75%, and the 100-grain weight decreased by 2.7%, but no significant difference in ear number per unit area.
In 2020, under the N180 level, the number of rows, number of grains in rows, ear length and ear diameter of spring maize under the RF system increased by 8.69%, 16.62%, 12.53%, and 5.75%, respectively, compared with the FP system. In 2021, it will increase by 14.17%, 17.39%, 6.68% and 5.39%, respectively. Under the N300 level in 2020 and 2021, the number of rows per ear and grains per ear of spring maize increased significantly under the RF system compared with the FP system. Compared with the N180 level, the number of rows per ear of spring maize under FP and RF systems increased by 6.14% and 3.53%, respectively, under the N300 level in 2020.

4. Discussion

4.1. Lodging-Related Apparent Characters of Spring Maize

Previous research has shown that reducing plant height can improve lodging resistance. However, an excessive reduction in plant height would have a negative impact on grain yield [18]. Plant height and ear height were significantly negatively correlated with the crop’s lodging resistance [16]. Under the RF system, the plant height, ear height, and center of gravity height of maize were significantly higher than in FP (Figure 3). This was likely due to the RF system’s ability to collect rainwater and reduce evaporation [22,27], allowing the crop to utilize more water, which was beneficial for growth [28]. As the crop develops, the RF system results in higher above-ground biomass compared to FP (Figure 3). Higher biomass indicates a larger canopy, which provides shading effects [29,30]. The warming effect of the plastic film is thought to promote the growth and development of the maize stalks, and this change in internal structure significantly increases the risk of lodging [18]. The development of the maize stalk, which serves functions of support, storage, and nutrient transport, is significantly correlated with lodging resistance [31]. The characteristics of the third internode at the maize plant’s base exhibit a noteworthy correlation with resistance to lodging [32]. In the RF system, plant height, center of gravity height, ear height and ear position coefficient all show a significant increase compared to the FP system. In addition, the stalk lodging rate of spring maize is much higher in the RF system than in the FP system [33]. Compared with FP, the internode density decreased significantly, but the population dry matter accumulation increased in RF. The results indicated that maize stalks were thicker under the corrugation system, which increased the risk of lodging resistance. The third internode of maize, being more slender than other internodes, plays a critical role in determining whether the plant will lodge, ultimately affecting yield per plant [34]. Our study indicates that under the RF system, the diameter, length, fresh weight, and dry weight of maize’s third internode were significantly greater than those under the FP system, while the internode density was lower (Table 1). This was attributed to the RF system improving the soil’s thermal and hydraulic environment, thus promoting maize growth and better stalk development [35]. Higher nitrogen levels resulted in taller plants, higher centers of gravity, and increased ear heights (Figure 3, Table 1). As nitrogen fertilizer application increases, the crop absorbs more nutrients, stimulating growth [36]. Higher plant and ear heights under high nitrogen levels, along with an increase in fresh weight from the internode to the ear tip and above-ground biomass, lead to a higher overall lodging rate at high nitrogen levels (Figure 3, Table 1). This result was in line with earlier research, suggesting that high nitrogen can increase competition for light, nutrients, and space among maize plants, raise the center of gravity, and thus increase the risk of lodging [37]. Internode length and fresh weight increase with nitrogen levels (Table 1). This aligned with Zhang et al., who suggested that increased nitrogen application lengthens the basal internodes and reduces their diameter and mechanical strength, thereby weakening the crop’s lodging resistance [38].

4.2. Stalk Lignin and Related Synthase of Spring Maize

Several studies have shown a correlation between the lodging resistance of maize and the lignin concentration in its stalks [39]. Lignin constitutes a fundamental component of the secondary cell wall and furnishes plants with mechanical strength, thereby curtailing stress induced by lodging [40,41]. The lignin biosynthesis pathway is dependent on the actions of critical lignin-related enzymes, namely phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD), and peroxidase (POD) [42]. Previous research indicates that increased accumulation of lignin in the lower stalk segments is a crucial factor in enhancing the lodging tolerance of diverse crops [43,44]. The functions of TAL, PAL, and POD enzymes are crucial in the biosynthesis of lignin [40,44]. Results show that under the RF system, lignin content is significantly higher than in the FP system (Figure 6). This could be due to lignin being formed from the polymerization of monomer lignin, part of which was formed by the cleavage of tyrosine, and TAL played a key role in this process [45,46]. Another part of monolignols was formed through the cleavage of phenylalanine, facilitated by the enzyme PAL [45]. POD aids in the dehydrogenative polymerization of monolignols to form lignin [47]. The process of lignin synthesis is impacted by the interplay of variety, growth cycle, environmental factors, and the genetic expression of enzymes linked to lignin synthesis [48,49,50,51,52]. Our research indicates that the RF system resulted in significantly higher TAL, PAL, and POD activity compared to the FP system. This suggests that the RF system enhances lignin-synthesizing enzyme activity, ultimately increasing lignin content [18]. Lignin content and associated synthase activities displayed a noteworthy increase under the N300 treatment in comparison with the N180 treatment (Figure 6). The N300 treatment likely provides more amino groups for the formation of TAL and PAL, ultimately increasing lignin content [47]. Meng et al. argue that a rise in nitrogen application effectively increases the amount of lignin and related enzyme activities within the basal stalk internodes of spring maize, which, in turn, bolsters the mechanical strength of the stalk and reduces the likelihood of stalk lodging [48]. Liu et al. highlight that nitrogen fertilizer application enhances cellulose, lignin, and total nitrogen within the stalk during the maize dough stage, which boosts the accumulation of total dry matter and, consequently, enhances the mechanical strength of the stalk [53]. These findings are consistent with our study results.

4.3. Mechanical Characteristics of Spring Maize

The direct factors determining whether maize will lodge are the mechanical properties of the stalk, among which bending, puncture strength, and root anchoring strength were important indicators [16,53]. Our study shows that during the dough stage, the stalk’s resistance to bending and epidermal penetration strength is significantly higher than at the silking stage (Table 2). This may be due to the gradual increase in lignin content as the growth stage progresses, with lignin content positively correlating with stalk bending resistance and epidermal penetration strength [8]. Under the RF system, the bending resistance and epidermal penetration strength of the third internode at the base of the maize is significantly higher than in the FP system [54]. This might be because the RF system enhances water effectiveness [55], thereby promoting the absorption of more nutrients by the crop, leading to greater above-ground fresh weight and yield (Figure 3, Table 4), which in turn increases lodging risk (Table 3). The bending resistance and epidermal penetration strength under the N300 treatment were significantly higher than under the N180 treatment. Bian et al. (2017) research, however, indicated that as nitrogen application increases, the resistance to bending and bending strength in the basal internodes of crop stalks decreases, the lodging index increases and lodging resistance declines [55]. A possible explanation was that the interaction of ridge–furrow mulching and nitrogen fertilizer provides abundant nutrients and water for the growth of spring maize, increasing the above-ground fresh weight [21]. However, the improved soil water and fertilizer conditions resulted in shallow root penetration [53], and gradually aging roots and reducing after the silking stage decreased root mass [56], thus increasing the root lodging rate of spring maize with high nitrogen level under RF system (Table 3). Under the RF system, up-rooting strength was significantly higher than in the FP system, and it significantly increased with the amount of nitrogen applied (Figure 4). However, the improved soil water and fertilizer conditions led to a shallower root penetration [53], and the gradual aging of the root stalk decreased after the silking stage [56], thereby increasing the root lodging rate of spring maize with high nitrogen levels under RF system (Table 3). The up-rooting strength of maize under RF mode was significantly higher than that under the FP system, and the up-rooting strength increased significantly with the increase in nitrogen application rate (Figure 4). Previous studies have shown that the lodging resistance of maize can be evaluated according to the size of the root-pulling force [56,57]. There was a positive correlation between root-pulling force and aboveground biomass [58,59]. In this study, root-pulling force and biomass had the same change rule (Figure 3 and Figure 6). However, the results of this study showed that RF had a higher lodging rate than FP (Table 3), which may be because furrows become prone to flooding, especially after rain, resulting in loose soil and aggravating crop lodging in heavy rainfall and wind events [54].

4.4. Grain Yield and Lodging

Maize yield components include the number of ears per unit area, grain number per ear, and 100-grain weight. Li et al. (2019) research suggested that RF cultivation was conducive to crop growth, enhancing maize’s grain number per ear and 100-grain weight, thereby achieving higher yields [55]. The use of plastic film mulching in semi-arid areas results in various positive effects on soil temperature, moisture, and nutrients, enabling maize to overcome early growth constraints such as low temperatures and drought, thereby increasing spring maize yield [25]. This was consistent with our study results, where spring maize yields under the RF system were significantly higher than those under the FP system (Table 4). This may be because the RF system provided more soil water for crops, enhanced photosynthetic efficiency, and ultimately increased biomass and yield [60]. Nitrogen application is an effective measure to improve maize yield [61,62,63]. With the increase in nitrogen fertilizer application rate, maize yield was improved by increasing kernel number per ear, row number per ear, ear diameter, ear length, and kernel number per plant [36]. This study showed that the spring maize yield of RF and FP planting systems at the N300 level in 2020 and 2021 was higher than that at the N180 level (Table 4). This is possibly due to the increased effectiveness of water in ridge–furrow rainwater catchment, which concurrently enhances the effectiveness of fertilizers [24]. This synergistic effect improves the soil water and nutrient environment, increases water and nutrient use efficiency, and ultimately results in higher grain yields [60]. Although increasing the nitrogen fertilizer application rate can achieve a high yield of spring maize, it will lead to stalk thickening, increase aboveground fresh weight, lead to greater bending moment, and increase lodging risk [16]. Increased grain yields and reduced lodging risk are incompatible. However, it is worth noting that compared with FP, RF has a significant effect on increasing yield, and the increase in lodging risk is controllable. The lodging resistance of spring maize can be improved by selecting dwarf varieties [64] and spraying uniconazole to increase basal internode fullness and lignin content [50].

5. Conclusions

Although the application of 300 kg N ha−1 fertilizer in RF mode resulted in a higher yield of spring corn, it also increased the risk of lodging. The combination of RF mode and N300 can significantly increase the lignin and synthase content of spring maize and improve the bending resistance and root-pulling strength of the stalk. At the same time, it can promote crop growth, and the index of plant-advanced agronomic traits was higher. It is important to maintain high spring maize yield while reducing lodging incidence to meet food demand. Compared with FP, more attention should be paid to the overall importance and effectiveness of the RF system, and its high lodging rate should be controlled by other means such as chemistry and breed selection.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.Z.; methodology, Y.Z. and Y.L. (Yufeng Lv); software, Y.Z. and Y.L. (Yufeng Lv); validation, Y.L. (Yuncheng Liao) and G.Z.; formal analysis, Y.L. (Yufeng Lv) and Y.Z.; investigation, Y.L. (Yufeng Lv) and Y.Z.; resources, Y.L. (Yuncheng Liao) and G.Z.; data curation, Y.Z. and G.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z.; writing—review and editing, G.Z. and Y.L. (Yuncheng Liao); visualization, Y.Z. and Y.L. (Yufeng Lv); supervision, G.Z. and Y.L. (Yuncheng Liao); project administration, G.Z. and Y.L. (Yuncheng Liao); funding acquisition, G.Z. and Y.L. (Yuncheng Liao). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research work was supported by the Basic Research Project of Shanxi Province, Science and Technology Department of Shanxi Province (202203021222152), the Doctoral Research Starting Project at Shanxi Agricultural University, Agricultural University (2023BQ25) and the Doctoral Graduates and Postdoctoral Researchers from Shanxi Province Come to Work to Reward Scientific Research Projects, Science and Technology Department of Shanxi Province (SXBYKY2022119).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. Daily precipitation and average temperature during the growing seasons of spring maize in (a) 2020 and (b) 2021 at Changwu, Shaanxi Province, China.
Figure 1. Daily precipitation and average temperature during the growing seasons of spring maize in (a) 2020 and (b) 2021 at Changwu, Shaanxi Province, China.
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Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of the field layout showing the (a) RF (ridge–furrow) system and (b) FP (flat planting).
Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of the field layout showing the (a) RF (ridge–furrow) system and (b) FP (flat planting).
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Figure 3. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on center of gravity height (2020 (a) and 2021 (b)), plant height (2020 (c) and 2021 (d)), ear height (2020 (e) and 2021 (f)), ear position coefficient (2020 (g) and 2021 (h)), and aboveground fresh weight (2020 (i) and 2021 (j)) of spring maize in 2020 and 2021. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level. ** significant differences at p < 0.01; * significant differences at p < 0.05; ns indicates a non-significant difference.
Figure 3. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on center of gravity height (2020 (a) and 2021 (b)), plant height (2020 (c) and 2021 (d)), ear height (2020 (e) and 2021 (f)), ear position coefficient (2020 (g) and 2021 (h)), and aboveground fresh weight (2020 (i) and 2021 (j)) of spring maize in 2020 and 2021. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level. ** significant differences at p < 0.01; * significant differences at p < 0.05; ns indicates a non-significant difference.
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Figure 4. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system and nitrogen application rate on root pulling force of spring maize in 2020 (a) and 2021 (b). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level, and different capital letters indicate significant differences in nitrogen application amount (p < 0.05). ** significant differences at p < 0.01; ns indicates a non-significant difference.
Figure 4. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system and nitrogen application rate on root pulling force of spring maize in 2020 (a) and 2021 (b). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level, and different capital letters indicate significant differences in nitrogen application amount (p < 0.05). ** significant differences at p < 0.01; ns indicates a non-significant difference.
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Figure 5. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on lodging resistance index of spring maize stalk during Vt (a,c) and R3 (b,d) stage in 2020 (a,b) and 2021 (c,d). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level. ** significant differences at p < 0.01; ns indicates a non-significant difference.
Figure 5. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on lodging resistance index of spring maize stalk during Vt (a,c) and R3 (b,d) stage in 2020 (a,b) and 2021 (c,d). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level. ** significant differences at p < 0.01; ns indicates a non-significant difference.
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Figure 6. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on lignin (a), PAL (b), TAL (c), and CAD (d) of spring maize stalks, average for 2020 and 2021. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level. ** significant differences at p < 0.01; ns indicates a non-significant difference. The red lines represent linear fitting lines for different enzymes, p-value were test at 0.05 level.
Figure 6. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on lignin (a), PAL (b), TAL (c), and CAD (d) of spring maize stalks, average for 2020 and 2021. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p ≤ 0.05 level. ** significant differences at p < 0.01; ns indicates a non-significant difference. The red lines represent linear fitting lines for different enzymes, p-value were test at 0.05 level.
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Table 1. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on the physical properties of the third stalk node at the base of spring maize in 2020 and 2021.
Table 1. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on the physical properties of the third stalk node at the base of spring maize in 2020 and 2021.
N Application Rate (NR)Planting System (PS)Internode Diameter
(mm)		Internode Length
(cm)		Internode Fresh Weight
(g)		Internode Dry Weight
(g)		Internode Mass Density
(g cm−1)
2020202120202021202020212020202120202021
N180FP2.09 c2.61 d13.20 d10.92 d73.66 d67.09 d5.63 c5.43 c0.42 ab0.50 a
RF2.28 a2.95 b18.67 b17.67 b108.72 b98.14 b6.91 ab6.20 b0.37 b0.35 b
Mean2.19 B2.78 B15.94 A14.3 B91.19 B82.62 B6.27 B5.82 A0.4 A0.43 A
N300FP2.20 b2.80 c14.67 c12.33 c86.53 c75.07 c6.62 b6.45 b0.45 a0.52 a
RF2.29 a3.02 a21.47 a19.50 a124.48 a111.57 a7.70 a7.40 a0.36 b0.38 b
Mean2.25 A2.91 A15.92 A15.92 A105.51 A93.29 A7.16 A6.93 A0.41 A0.45 A
ANOVA
NR**************nsns
PS*******************
NR × PS**nsnsns*nsnsnsns
Notes: The different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between different treatments at the p = 0.05 level, and different capital letters represent significant differences between N application rates at the p = 0.05 level. ** significant differences at p < 0.01; * significant differences at p < 0.05; ns indicates non-significant difference.
Table 2. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on mechanical properties of the third stalk node at the base of spring maize in 2020 and 2021.
Table 2. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on mechanical properties of the third stalk node at the base of spring maize in 2020 and 2021.
FactorBreaking Strength
(N·mm−1)		Rind Penetration Strength (N·mm−1)
2020202120202021
N application rate (NR)
N180275.00 b361.06 b59.08 b53.53 b
N300300.56 a393.69 a62.25 a57.47 a
Planting system (PS)
FP238.62 b328.02 b54.89 b51.19 b
RF336.94 a426.73 a66.44 a59.81 a
NR********
PS********
NR × PSns****ns
Notes: The different lowercase letters indicate significant differences between different treatments at the p = 0.05 level, ** significant differences at p < 0.01; ns indicates a non-significant difference.
Table 3. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on lodging rate of spring maize in 2021.
Table 3. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on lodging rate of spring maize in 2021.
N Application Rate (NR)Planting System (PS)Stalk Lodging Rate (%)Root Lodging Rate (%)Total Lodging Rate (%)
N180RF8.30 a12.73 b21.03 b
FP6.63 ab6.00 d12.63 c
Mean7.47 A9.37 B16.83 B
N300RF8.27 a19.30 a27.57 a
FP6.00 b8.43 c14.43 c
Mean7.13 A13.87 A21.00 A
NRns****
PS*****
NR × PSns****
Notes: The data in the table were for 2020, and no lodging occurred in 2021. Different lowercase letters in the table indicate significant differences among different treatments (p < 0.05), and different capital letters indicate that there are significant differences between N application rates (p < 0.05). ** significant differences at p < 0.01; * significant differences at p < 0.05; ns indicates non-significant difference.
Table 4. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on spring maize yield, yield composition, and ear characteristics of spring maize in 2020 and 2021.
Table 4. Effects of nitrogen application rate and planting system on spring maize yield, yield composition, and ear characteristics of spring maize in 2020 and 2021.
YearN
Application
Rate (NR)		Planting
System (PS)		Grain Yield
(t ha−1)		Grain
Number
per Ear (no.)		100-Grain Weight (g)Ear Number per ha (104 ha−1)Rows
per Ear (no.)		Kernels per Row
(no.)		Ear Length (cm)Ear
Diameter (mm)		Bare Top Length (mm)
2020N180FP9.50 d505.84 c30.41 b5.43 c15.64 d32.50 b18.84 c51.51 c33.96 a
RF12.14 b640.53 a35.78 a6.28 b17.00 b37.90 a21.20 a54.47 a14.17 b
Mean10.82 B573.18 B33.09 A5.86 B16.24 B35.20 A20.02 A52.99 B24.07 A
N300FP10.86 c548.08 b29.82 b6.03 b16.60 c33.28 b19.88 b53.45 b28.36 a
RF13.74 a648.51 a35.13 a7.26 a17.60 a37.40 a20.41 b54.15 ab11.33 b
Mean12.31 A598.29 A32.47 A6.65 A16.90 A35.34 A20.15 A53.80 A19.85 B
ANOVA
NR*** ****nsns*ns
PS******************
NR × PSnsnsnsnsnsns****ns
2021N180FP9.44 d429.85 d32.10 b5.79 c14.39 c30.08 d18.41 b49.33 b45.05 a
RF12.33 b570.05 b35.85 a6.49 b16.43 a35.31 b19.64 ab51.99 a24.65 b
Mean10.88 B499.95 A33.97 A6.14 A15.22 B32.69 B19.02 A50.66 A34.85 A
N300FP10.24 c515.23 c30.95 c6.20 b15.35 b34.02 c18.70 ab49.68 b41.07 a
RF13.17 a592.30 a35.14 a6.85 a16.57 a36.26 a19.90 a52.68 a22.58 b
Mean11.71 A553.77 B33.05 B6.52 A15.74 A35.14 A19.3 A51.18 A31.83 A
ANOVA
NR**********nsnsns
PS*****************
NR × PSns**nsnsns**nsnsns
Notes: Different lowercase letters in the table indicate significant differences among different treatments (p < 0.05), different capital letters indicate that there are significant differences between N application rates (p < 0.05). ** significant differences at p < 0.01; * significant differences at p < 0.05; ns indicates non-significant difference.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, Y.; Lv, Y.; Liao, Y.; Zhang, G. Effect of Ridge–Furrow with Plastic Film Mulching System and Different Nitrogen Fertilization Rates on Lodging Resistance of Spring Maize in Loess Plateau China. Agronomy 2024, 14, 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061298

AMA Style

Zhang Y, Lv Y, Liao Y, Zhang G. Effect of Ridge–Furrow with Plastic Film Mulching System and Different Nitrogen Fertilization Rates on Lodging Resistance of Spring Maize in Loess Plateau China. Agronomy. 2024; 14(6):1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061298

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Yan, Yufeng Lv, Yuncheng Liao, and Guangxin Zhang. 2024. "Effect of Ridge–Furrow with Plastic Film Mulching System and Different Nitrogen Fertilization Rates on Lodging Resistance of Spring Maize in Loess Plateau China" Agronomy 14, no. 6: 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061298

APA Style

Zhang, Y., Lv, Y., Liao, Y., & Zhang, G. (2024). Effect of Ridge–Furrow with Plastic Film Mulching System and Different Nitrogen Fertilization Rates on Lodging Resistance of Spring Maize in Loess Plateau China. Agronomy, 14(6), 1298. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061298

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