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Communication

Effects of Purple and Green-Colored Bottle Traps on Captures of Ambrosia Beetles in Ornamental Nurseries

by
Ramkumar Govindaraju
and
Shimat V. Joseph
*
Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2025, 15(1), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010105
Submission received: 3 December 2024 / Revised: 28 December 2024 / Accepted: 30 December 2024 / Published: 3 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pest Management in Turfgrass and Ornamentals)
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Abstract

:
The granulate ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky), and the black stem borer, Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford), are important pests in ornamental nurseries. The effects of monitoring trap color in capturing adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus are mixed in the literature. Because the colorless bottle trap is commonly used to monitor ambrosia beetles in ornamental nurseries, it is unclear if adding purple or green, commonly used for collecting cerambycids and buprestids, would improve adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus captures. Thus, the objective of this study was to compare the effect of purple or green-colored bottle traps with colorless bottle traps on captures of adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus in ornamental nurseries. In 2023 and 2024, experiments were conducted using bottle traps baited with AgBio low-release ethanol lure (LR ethanol lure). Adding purple or green to the bottle trap did not improve captures of adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus. Adult X. germanus captures were reduced in the green-bottle trap than in the colorless trap. The purple bottle trap did not collect more numbers of adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus than the colorless bottle trap with LR ethanol lure. This suggests that adding purple or green to bottle traps did not provide additional value in monitoring ambrosia beetles in ornamental nurseries for management decisions.

1. Introduction

The granulate ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky), and the black stem borer, Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford), are important ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) pests in ornamental nurseries [1,2,3]. Xylosandrus crassiusculus and X. germanus thrive on dead and decaying trees in woodlots, feeding on specialized fungi they farm inside the galleries they build within trees. Most females mate before the winter and overwinter as adults [1]. As temperatures soar in the spring, females leave their infested hosts in high numbers, seeking new hosts to start colonies. These mass flights in the spring spill out of woodlots into ornamental nurseries where young trees are produced [1]. Ambrosia beetles use stressed trees that produce ethanol to locate and attack [4] because ethanol is a cue for tree stress. Ethanol in trees is produced under anaerobic conditions in the root zone caused by weather events, such as flooding and drought [5]. Once these beetles settle on the bark, they bore into the heartwood region of the tree and produce branching galleries [1]. They inoculate the specialized fungi they bring with them inside mycangia [6,7]. The adults oviposit inside the fungal garden, and both larvae and adults feed only on fungal mycelia [1]. The affected trees respond by branch dieback and sometimes tree death [1].
Management of Xylosandrus spp. depends solely on pyrethroids applied as preventative trunk sprays in early spring [1,8,9]. Although many other active ingredients are available to use, they are ineffective against ambrosia beetles [9,10,11]. Because pyrethroids are applied preventatively, understanding the timing for ambrosia beetle flight is critical. For monitoring purposes, ethanol is used as an attractant in traps to determine their flight activity in the spring and summer. Ethanol lures are commercially available as ready-to-use pouches that can be used in various traps.
Among many traps, such as bolts, prism traps, panel traps, Lindgren funnel traps, etc., that can be used to monitor ambrosia beetle adults in ornamental nurseries, the bottle trap is recommended in many regions [12,13,14,15,16] and has emerged as a trap type of choice among many practitioners. The bottle trap is built by modifying a ~2 L transparent “soda” bottle available locally [3,17]. The bottle used to build the trap is clear or colorless, offering minimal visual stimuli to flying adult ambrosia beetles. Various studies on ambrosia beetles showed that adult X. crassiusculus preferred green [18]. However, the beetle in the tribe Xyleborini, including X. crassiusculus and X. germanus, elicited no preference for a specific color when 13 colors with ethanol-baited prism sticky traps were evaluated in southeastern Tennessee and southern Mississippi [19].
Members of longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) [20] and flat-headed wood borers (Buprestidae) [21] are serious pests of trees. Purple and green colors are incorporated into traps to attract cerambycids and buprestids [22]. Purple- and green-colored traps captured more numbers of cerambycids and buprestids than other colors [23]. Thus, traps with purple and green are recommended for captures of cerambycid and buprestid pests in various landscape systems [24,25,26,27,28]. When purple and green-colored traps were evaluated for ambrosia beetles, X. germanus showed a preference for purple over green, but adult X. crassiusculus showed no preference for either purple or green [20]. However, Marchioro et al. (2020) used 12-funnel Lindgren traps, which are not a common trap recommended to growers in ornamental nurseries in the eastern US. It is unclear if bottle traps with purple or green colors will improve captures of ambrosia beetles. Thus, the objective of this study was to compare the effects of purple and green-colored bottle traps with colorless bottle traps on captures of adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus in ornamental nurseries.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

In 2023 and 2024, a study was conducted in a 20-ha ornamental nursery in Pike County (GPS coordinates: 33.04071061170671, −84.3354113471871) in Georgia, USA. In the nursery, a variety of 1–3 year-old woody ornamental trees, such as magnolia (Magnolia virginiana L.), maple (Acer spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), etc., were grown. These trees were under drip irrigation and received routine pruning and fertilization through the growing season. The woodlot adjacent to the nursery comprises mixed hardwood and pine (Pinus spp.) forest. The species of trees and shrubs were oak, sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), maple, poplar (Populus alba L.), and Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense Lour.).

2.2. Bottle Trap and Lure

Transparent 22 × 10 cm rectangular, 1.9 L plastic bottles were used to create bottle traps (Figure 1). Two ~5 cm × ~19 cm rectangular vents were cut into two opposite sides for adult access into the bottle trap. The bottle trap was suspended upside down using a shepherd’s hook and zip ties. Two holes were drilled into the bottom of the bottle trap to hang the lure pouch inside the bottle trap. The incoming adult beetles were trapped inside the trap using a 200 mL soap solution. The soap solution was prepared by mixing approximately 0.5 mL of detergent soap (Dawn, P&G, Cincinnati, OH, USA) in tap water. The soap solution was added to the screw end of the bottle trap. When monitoring, the soap solution was emptied by unscrewing the bottle trap and refilled with fresh soap solution. After suspending from the hook, the bottom tip of the bottle trap was ~1 m from the ground surface.
Three colors were selected for this experiment: purple, green, and no-color [transparent]. The traps were colored purple and green by being fully wrapped around the plastic bottles using Scotch tape (purple or green; Scotch® #35 Orange Vinyl Electrical Tape 10869-DL-5, 1.9 × 20.1 m × 0.2 mm, 3 M, St. Paul, MN, USA) (Figure 1A,B). The colorless trap received no tape wrapping.
An AgBio low-release ethanol lure (AgBio Inc., Westminster, CO, USA; Manufacturer: ChemTica Internacional, S.A., San Jose, Costa Rica) is referred to as LR lure hereafter. The LR lure contains 7–8 mL of 95% ethanol, and the release rate is 65 mg per d at 30 °C [17]. The estimated field life of the LR lure is ~120 d (Manufacturer: ChemTica Internacional, S.A., San Jose, Costa Rica; Distributor: AgBio Inc., Westminster, CO, USA).

2.3. Experimental Design

The treatments were (1) colorless + LR, (2) purple + LR, (3) green + LR, (4) colorless–LR, (5) purple–LR, and (6) green–LR. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with six replications. The bottle trap treatments were placed 10 m apart and 1 m from the wood line. The experiment was initiated on 22 February in both years. The LR ethanol lures were replaced once at 4 weeks post-deployment. The bottle traps were serviced at 7 d intervals for 8 weeks. The beetles collected in each bottle trap were emptied by unscrewing the bottle’s lid into a coffee filter placed over a mesh strainer. The coffee filters with insect content, including ambrosia beetles, were transported in plastic bags and temporarily stored at −18 °C. From the freezer, the ambrosia beetles were sorted from the samples and stored in 70% ethanol for later identification. Because X. crassiusculus and X. germanus are the major ambrosia beetle pests in the ornamental nurseries in Georgia [17], they were only identified as species using published keys [29,30,31].

2.4. Statistical Analyses

The ambrosia beetle data, especially adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus from eight 7 d intervals, were combined by treatment and replication to determine the treatment effect. Adult X. crassiusculus, and X. germanus data were subjected to a two-way analysis of variance using a generalized linear model (PROC GLIMMIX) in SAS [32]. The analysis was conducted using a factorial design. The factor color was at three levels (colorless, purple, and green), and the factor ethanol was at two levels (with and without LR ethanol lure). The treatments were color, ethanol, and their interactions for X. crassiusculus, and X. germanus data. The model was set with a log-link function and used a Poisson distribution. The treatments and replications were fixed and random effects, respectively, in the model. A value of one was added to adult X. germanus data as they were zero-inflated in both years. The means for color were separated by ethanol (+LR and −LR ethanol lure) treatment using the Tukey–Kramer test (α < 0.05). Means and standard errors were calculated from non-transformed data using the PROC MEAN procedure in SAS.

3. Results

In 2023 and 2024, the trap color, ethanol lure, and their interaction were significantly different for adult X. crassiusculus captures (Table 1). For adult X. germanus captures, trap color, ethanol lure, and their interaction were significantly different in 2024, whereas in 2023, only the LR ethanol lure was significantly different (Table 1). Because the interactions between trap color and LR ethanol lure were significantly different for adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus in multiple years, the Tukey–Kramer test was performed by ethanol lure to understand the effects on X. crassiusculus and X. germanus with and without LR ethanol lure on three colored bottle traps.

3.1. 2023 Trial

With LR ethanol lure, the number of adult X. crassiusculus was significantly greater for the green treatment than for the colorless treatment (Figure 2A). Without LR ethanol lure, the number of adult X. crassiusculus was significantly greater for the colorless treatment than for the purple treatment (Figure 2A). For adult X. germanus, a significantly greater number of adults was captured for the colorless treatment than for the green treatment with LR ethanol lure (Figure 2B). Without LR ethanol lure, there was no significant difference between color treatments in adult X. germanus captures (Figure 2B).

3.2. 2024 Trial

With LR ethanol lure, the number of adult X. crassiusculus was significantly greater for the colorless treatment than for the green treatment (Figure 2A). Without LR ethanol lure, the number of adult X. crassiusculus was significantly greater for the green and purple treatments than for the colorless treatment (Figure 2A). A significantly greater number of X. germanus adults was captured for the colorless treatment than for the purple treatment, followed by the green treatment with LR ethanol lure (Figure 2B). Without LR ethanol lure, there was no significant difference between color treatments in adult X. germanus captures (Figure 2B).

4. Discussion

The results showed that adding purple or green to the bottle trap did not consistently improve captures of adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus. Adding green color reduced captures of adult X. germanus compared to the colorless trap. The purple bottle trap did not collect more numbers of adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus than the colorless bottle trap. Marchioro et al. (2020) showed that more ambrosia beetles, including adult X. germanus, were captured using purple traps than in green. Similarly, none of the colors influenced trap captures of ambrosia beetles [19]. Previous studies did not use bottle traps; instead, 12-funnel Lindgren traps or panel traps were used [19,22], and the colorless trap was not included. Colorless bottle traps capture ambrosia beetles and are effective when used with the LR ethanol lure [33]. This trap is often recommended for monitoring the activity of ambrosia beetles, especially during the spring and summer [12,13,14,15,16]. In the current study, colorless traps were used to compare the effects of purple and green colors. This makes it challenging to determine if the no-color option would increase trap captures compared to purple and green, as in previous studies. These variations in trap-type designs may have influenced the captures of ambrosia beetles in traps.
In the current study, only the LR ethanol lure was used, which increased X. crassiusculus and X. germanus captures. In Marchioro et al. (2020), however, traps were baited with UHR (ultra-high release) ethanol, or UHR ethanol and racemic 3-hydroxyhexan-2-one (K6), racemic 3-hydroxyoctan-2-one (K8), syn-2,3-hexanediols (D6), (E/Z)-fuscumol, and (E/Z)-fuscumol acetate, or UHR ethanol, UHR α-pinene, ipsenol, and 2-undecyloxy-1-ethanol. These baits are pheromones of cerambycids or other bark beetles [20]. Ethanol is a widely used attractant for detecting ambrosia beetles in orchards and ornamental nurseries [1,4,34]. Previous studies showed that the LR ethanol lure effectively captured ambrosia beetles in traps [33] and for at least eight weeks when used in bottle traps [17]. The results showed that the LR ethanol lure continued to capture ambrosia beetles, including adult X. crassiusculus and X. germanus, and adding purple or green color to the trap did not improve the captures.
In summary, data suggest that adding purple and green colors to bottle traps to capture economically important species, such as X. crassiusculus and X. germanus [3,13,17] did not consistently offer any additional value. LR ethanol lure by itself can attract and trap flying ambrosia beetles, regardless of trap color. Colorless “soda” bottles are commercially available to growers and can be used directly without adding color. These “soda” bottles could be easily modified by adding a couple of vents and attaching a string to hang the LR ethanol lure to develop them into functional traps. Xylosandrus crassiusculus and X. germanus are the major ambrosia beetle species, and growers are mostly concerned about attacks on the young trees for weeks leading up to and after the bud break in the spring [13]. The peak adult X. germanus flight in the spring coincides with the maximum daily temperatures between 20 and 21 °C for two consecutive days [35]. Once young trees fully expand leaves, they are less vulnerable to ambrosia beetle attacks [13], unless they experience prolonged stress due to flood or drought. Thus, colorless bottle traps with LR ethanol lures can effectively monitor the flight activity of ambrosia beetles in ornamental nurseries for management decisions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.V.J.; methodology, S.V.J.; software, S.V.J.; validation, R.G. and S.V.J.; formal analysis, S.V.J.; investigation, R.G.; resources, S.V.J.; data curation, R.G.; writing—original draft preparation, S.V.J. and R.G.; writing—review and editing, R.G. and S.V.J.; visualization, S.V.J.; supervision, S.V.J.; project administration, R.G. and S.V.J.; funding acquisition, S.V.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by USDA-NIFA-SCRI award #2021-51181-35863.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available upon request.

Acknowledgments

We thank C. Hardin for helping with the field experiments and the growers for helping with the research sites. The mention of insecticide-active ingredients in this publication is solely to provide specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Agronomy 15 00105 g001
Figure 1. (A) Purple, (B) green, and (C) colorless (clear) traps deployed in an ornamental nursery.
Figure 1. (A) Purple, (B) green, and (C) colorless (clear) traps deployed in an ornamental nursery.
Agronomy 15 00105 g001
Agronomy 15 00105 g002
Figure 2. Mean (±SE) number of (A) X. crassiusculus, and (B) X. germanus adults collected in eight weeks after exposing colored-bottle traps in the ornamental nursery in 2023 and 2024. The same letter cases (lower and upper cases for 2023 and 2024, respectively, and bold or nonbold within +LR and −LR ethanol lure) above bars indicate no significant difference using the Tukey–Kramer test (α = 0.05).
Figure 2. Mean (±SE) number of (A) X. crassiusculus, and (B) X. germanus adults collected in eight weeks after exposing colored-bottle traps in the ornamental nursery in 2023 and 2024. The same letter cases (lower and upper cases for 2023 and 2024, respectively, and bold or nonbold within +LR and −LR ethanol lure) above bars indicate no significant difference using the Tukey–Kramer test (α = 0.05).
Agronomy 15 00105 g002
Table 1. Analysis of variance of bottle trap color, LR ethanol, and their interaction on ambrosia beetle captures in colored-bottle traps.
Table 1. Analysis of variance of bottle trap color, LR ethanol, and their interaction on ambrosia beetle captures in colored-bottle traps.
Treatment2023Treatment2024
FdfpFdfp
X. crassiusculus
  Color3.82,50.036  Color8.92,250.001
  LR ethanol168.71,25<0.001  LR ethanol88.41,25<0.001
  Color × LR ethanol6.82,250.004  Color × LR ethanol11.92,25<0.001
X. germanus
  Color2.12,250.139  Color5.12,250.014
  LR ethanol31.11,25<0.001  LR ethanol44.91,25<0.001
  Color × LR ethanol0.92,250.418  Color × LR ethanol14.32,25<0.001
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MDPI and ACS Style

Govindaraju, R.; Joseph, S.V. Effects of Purple and Green-Colored Bottle Traps on Captures of Ambrosia Beetles in Ornamental Nurseries. Agronomy 2025, 15, 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010105

AMA Style

Govindaraju R, Joseph SV. Effects of Purple and Green-Colored Bottle Traps on Captures of Ambrosia Beetles in Ornamental Nurseries. Agronomy. 2025; 15(1):105. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010105

Chicago/Turabian Style

Govindaraju, Ramkumar, and Shimat V. Joseph. 2025. "Effects of Purple and Green-Colored Bottle Traps on Captures of Ambrosia Beetles in Ornamental Nurseries" Agronomy 15, no. 1: 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010105

APA Style

Govindaraju, R., & Joseph, S. V. (2025). Effects of Purple and Green-Colored Bottle Traps on Captures of Ambrosia Beetles in Ornamental Nurseries. Agronomy, 15(1), 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010105

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