Genes

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Open AccessArticle

Imprinted Genes and the Environment: Links to the Toxic Metals Arsenic, Cadmium and Lead

by Lisa Smeester, Andrew E. Yosim, Monica D. Nye, Cathrine Hoyo, Susan K. Murphy and Rebecca C. Fry

Genes 2014, 5(2), 477-496; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020477 - 11 Jun 2014

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 10759

Abstract

Imprinted genes defy rules of Mendelian genetics with their expression tied to the parent from whom each allele was inherited. They are known to play a role in various diseases/disorders including fetal growth disruption, lower birth weight, obesity, and cancer. There is increasing [...] Read more.

Imprinted genes defy rules of Mendelian genetics with their expression tied to the parent from whom each allele was inherited. They are known to play a role in various diseases/disorders including fetal growth disruption, lower birth weight, obesity, and cancer. There is increasing interest in understanding their influence on environmentally-induced disease. The environment can be thought of broadly as including chemicals present in air, water and soil, as well as food. According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), some of the highest ranking environmental chemicals of concern include metals/metalloids such as arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury. The complex relationships between toxic metal exposure, imprinted gene regulation/expression and health outcomes are understudied. Herein we examine trends in imprinted gene biology, including an assessment of the imprinted genes and their known functional roles in the cell, particularly as they relate to toxic metals exposure and disease. The data highlight that many of the imprinted genes have known associations to developmental diseases and are enriched for their role in the TP53 and AhR pathways. Assessment of the promoter regions of the imprinted genes resulted in the identification of an enrichment of binding sites for two transcription factor families, namely the zinc finger family II and PLAG transcription factors. Taken together these data contribute insight into the complex relationships between toxic metals in the environment and imprinted gene biology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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766 KiB

Open AccessArticle

GWAS to Sequencing: Divergence in Study Design and Analysis

by Christopher Ryan King and Dan L. Nicolae

Genes 2014, 5(2), 460-476; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020460 - 28 May 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7550

Abstract

The success of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in uncovering genetic risk factors for complex traits has generated great promise for the complete data generated by sequencing. The bumpy transition from GWAS to whole-exome or whole-genome association studies (WGAS) based on sequencing investigations has [...] Read more.

The success of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in uncovering genetic risk factors for complex traits has generated great promise for the complete data generated by sequencing. The bumpy transition from GWAS to whole-exome or whole-genome association studies (WGAS) based on sequencing investigations has highlighted important differences in analysis and interpretation. We show how the loss in power due to the allele frequency spectrum targeted by sequencing is difficult to compensate for with realistic effect sizes and point to study designs that may help. We discuss several issues in interpreting the results, including a special case of the winner’s curse. Extrapolation and prediction using rare SNPs is complex, because of the selective ascertainment of SNPs in case-control studies and the low amount of information at each SNP, and naive procedures are biased under the alternative. We also discuss the challenges in tuning gene-based tests and accounting for multiple testing when genes have very different sets of SNPs. The examples we emphasize in this paper highlight the difficult road we must travel for a two-letter switch. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessReview

Changing Histopathological Diagnostics by Genome-Based Tumor Classification

by Michael Kloth and Reinhard Buettner

Genes 2014, 5(2), 444-459; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020444 - 28 May 2014

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8117

Abstract

Traditionally, tumors are classified by histopathological criteria, i.e., based on their specific morphological appearances. Consequently, current therapeutic decisions in oncology are strongly influenced by histology rather than underlying molecular or genomic aberrations. The increase of information on molecular changes however, enabled by [...] Read more.

Traditionally, tumors are classified by histopathological criteria, i.e., based on their specific morphological appearances. Consequently, current therapeutic decisions in oncology are strongly influenced by histology rather than underlying molecular or genomic aberrations. The increase of information on molecular changes however, enabled by the Human Genome Project and the International Cancer Genome Consortium as well as the manifold advances in molecular biology and high-throughput sequencing techniques, inaugurated the integration of genomic information into disease classification. Furthermore, in some cases it became evident that former classifications needed major revision and adaption. Such adaptations are often required by understanding the pathogenesis of a disease from a specific molecular alteration, using this molecular driver for targeted and highly effective therapies. Altogether, reclassifications should lead to higher information content of the underlying diagnoses, reflecting their molecular pathogenesis and resulting in optimized and individual therapeutic decisions. The objective of this article is to summarize some particularly important examples of genome-based classification approaches and associated therapeutic concepts. In addition to reviewing disease specific markers, we focus on potentially therapeutic or predictive markers and the relevance of molecular diagnostics in disease monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessReview

Pharmacogenomics: Current State-of-the-Art

by Daniel F. Carr, Ana Alfirevic and Munir Pirmohamed

Genes 2014, 5(2), 430-443; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020430 - 26 May 2014

Cited by 49 | Viewed by 10210

Abstract

The completion of the human genome project 10 years ago was met with great optimism for improving drug therapy through personalized medicine approaches, with the anticipation that an era of genotype-guided patient prescribing was imminent. To some extent this has come to pass [...] Read more.

The completion of the human genome project 10 years ago was met with great optimism for improving drug therapy through personalized medicine approaches, with the anticipation that an era of genotype-guided patient prescribing was imminent. To some extent this has come to pass and a number of key pharmacogenomics markers of inter-individual drug response, for both safety and efficacy, have been identified and subsequently been adopted in clinical practice as pre-treatment genetic tests. However, the universal application of genetics in treatment guidance is still a long way off. This review will highlight important pharmacogenomic discoveries which have been facilitated by the human genome project and other milestone projects such as the International HapMap and 1000 genomes, and by the continued development of genotyping and sequencing technologies, including rapid point of care pre-treatment genetic testing. However, there are still many challenges to implementation for the many other reported biomarkers which continue to languish within the discovery phase. As technology advances over the next 10 years, and the costs fall, the field will see larger genetic data sets, including affordable whole genome sequences, which will, it is hoped, improve patient outcomes through better diagnostic, prognostic and predictive biomarkers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Analysis of Alpharetroviral Integration in Human Hematopoietic Stem/Progenitor Cells

by Arianna Moiani, Julia Debora Suerth, Francesco Gandolfi, Ermanno Rizzi, Marco Severgnini, Gianluca De Bellis, Axel Schambach and Fulvio Mavilio

Genes 2014, 5(2), 415-429; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020415 - 16 May 2014

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 8144

Abstract

Gene transfer vectors derived from gamma-retroviruses or lentiviruses are currently used for the gene therapy of genetic or acquired diseases. Retroviral vectors display a non-random integration pattern in the human genome, targeting either regulatory regions (gamma-retroviruses) or the transcribed portion of expressed genes [...] Read more.

Gene transfer vectors derived from gamma-retroviruses or lentiviruses are currently used for the gene therapy of genetic or acquired diseases. Retroviral vectors display a non-random integration pattern in the human genome, targeting either regulatory regions (gamma-retroviruses) or the transcribed portion of expressed genes (lentiviruses), and have the potential to deregulate gene expression at the transcriptional or post-transcriptional level. A recently developed alternative vector system derives from the avian sarcoma-leukosis alpha-retrovirus (ASLV) and shows favorable safety features compared to both gamma-retroviral and lentiviral vectors in preclinical models. We performed a high-throughput analysis of the integration pattern of self-inactivating (SIN) alpha-retroviral vectors in human CD34⁺ hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs) and compared it to previously reported gamma-retroviral and lentiviral vectors integration profiles obtained in the same experimental setting. Compared to gamma-retroviral and lentiviral vectors, the SIN-ASLV vector maintains a preference for open chromatin regions, but shows no bias for transcriptional regulatory elements or transcription units, as defined by genomic annotations and epigenetic markers (H3K4me1 and H3K4me3 histone modifications). Importantly, SIN-ASLV integrations do not cluster in hot spots and target potentially dangerous genomic loci, such as the EVI2A/B, RUNX1 and LMO2 proto-oncogenes at a virtually random frequency. These characteristics predict a safer profile for ASLV-derived vectors for clinical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessReview

The Little Fly that Could: Wizardry and Artistry of Drosophila Genomics

by Radoslaw K. Ejsmont and Bassem A. Hassan

Genes 2014, 5(2), 385-414; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020385 - 13 May 2014

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 12805

Abstract

For more than 100 years now, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been at the forefront of our endeavors to unlock the secrets of the genome. From the pioneering studies of chromosomes and heredity by Morgan and his colleagues, to the generation of [...] Read more.

For more than 100 years now, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been at the forefront of our endeavors to unlock the secrets of the genome. From the pioneering studies of chromosomes and heredity by Morgan and his colleagues, to the generation of fly models for human disease, Drosophila research has been at the forefront of genetics and genomics. We present a broad overview of some of the most powerful genomics tools that keep Drosophila research at the cutting edge of modern biomedical research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessArticle

Characterization of the Genomic Architecture and Mutational Spectrum of a Small Cell Prostate Carcinoma

by Alan F. Scott, David W. Mohr, Hua Ling, Robert B. Scharpf, Peng Zhang and Gregory S. Liptak

Genes 2014, 5(2), 366-384; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020366 - 12 May 2014

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 9096

Abstract

We present the use of a series of laboratory, analytical and interpretation methods to investigate personalized cancer care for a case of small cell prostate carcinoma (SCPC), a rare and aggressive tumor with poor prognosis, for which the underlying genomic architecture and mutational [...] Read more.

We present the use of a series of laboratory, analytical and interpretation methods to investigate personalized cancer care for a case of small cell prostate carcinoma (SCPC), a rare and aggressive tumor with poor prognosis, for which the underlying genomic architecture and mutational spectrum has not been well characterized. We performed both SNP genotyping and exome sequencing of a Virchow node metastasis from a patient with SCPC. A variety of methods were used to analyze and interpret the tumor genome for copy number variation, loss of heterozygosity (LOH), somatic mosaicism and mutations in genes from known cancer pathways. The combination of genotyping and exome sequencing approaches provided more information than either technique alone. The results showed widespread evidence of copy number changes involving most chromosomes including the possible loss of both alleles of CDKN1B (p27/Kip1). LOH was observed for the regions encompassing the tumor suppressors TP53, RB1, and CHD1. Predicted damaging somatic mutations were observed in the retained TP53 and RB1 alleles. Mutations in other genes that may be functionally relevant were noted, especially the recently reported high confidence cancer drivers FOXA1 and CCAR1. The disruption of multiple cancer drivers underscores why SCPC may be such a difficult cancer to manage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessArticle

Epigenetic Variation in Monozygotic Twins: A Genome-Wide Analysis of DNA Methylation in Buccal Cells

by Jenny Van Dongen, Erik A. Ehli, Roderick C. Slieker, Meike Bartels, Zachary M. Weber, Gareth E. Davies, P. Eline Slagboom, Bastiaan T. Heijmans and Dorret I. Boomsma

Genes 2014, 5(2), 347-365; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020347 - 5 May 2014

Cited by 50 | Viewed by 15172

Abstract

DNA methylation is one of the most extensively studied epigenetic marks in humans. Yet, it is largely unknown what causes variation in DNA methylation between individuals. The comparison of DNA methylation profiles of monozygotic (MZ) twins offers a unique experimental design to examine [...] Read more.

DNA methylation is one of the most extensively studied epigenetic marks in humans. Yet, it is largely unknown what causes variation in DNA methylation between individuals. The comparison of DNA methylation profiles of monozygotic (MZ) twins offers a unique experimental design to examine the extent to which such variation is related to individual-specific environmental influences and stochastic events or to familial factors (DNA sequence and shared environment). We measured genome-wide DNA methylation in buccal samples from ten MZ pairs (age 8–19) using the Illumina 450k array and examined twin correlations for methylation level at 420,921 CpGs after QC. After selecting CpGs showing the most variation in the methylation level between subjects, the mean genome-wide correlation (rho) was 0.54. The correlation was higher, on average, for CpGs within CpG islands (CGIs), compared to CGI shores, shelves and non-CGI regions, particularly at hypomethylated CpGs. This finding suggests that individual-specific environmental and stochastic influences account for more variation in DNA methylation in CpG-poor regions. Our findings also indicate that it is worthwhile to examine heritable and shared environmental influences on buccal DNA methylation in larger studies that also include dizygotic twins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessArticle

Polygenic Scores Predict Alcohol Problems in an Independent Sample and Show Moderation by the Environment

by Jessica E. Salvatore, Fazil Aliev, Alexis C. Edwards, David M. Evans, John Macleod, Matthew Hickman, Glyn Lewis, Kenneth S. Kendler, Anu Loukola, Tellervo Korhonen, Antti Latvala, Richard J. Rose, Jaakko Kaprio and Danielle M. Dick

Genes 2014, 5(2), 330-346; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020330 - 10 Apr 2014

Cited by 67 | Viewed by 11807

Abstract

Alcohol problems represent a classic example of a complex behavioral outcome that is likely influenced by many genes of small effect. A polygenic approach, which examines aggregate measured genetic effects, can have predictive power in cases where individual genes or genetic variants do [...] Read more.

Alcohol problems represent a classic example of a complex behavioral outcome that is likely influenced by many genes of small effect. A polygenic approach, which examines aggregate measured genetic effects, can have predictive power in cases where individual genes or genetic variants do not. In the current study, we first tested whether polygenic risk for alcohol problems—derived from genome-wide association estimates of an alcohol problems factor score from the age 18 assessment of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC; n = 4304 individuals of European descent; 57% female)—predicted alcohol problems earlier in development (age 14) in an independent sample (FinnTwin12; n = 1162; 53% female). We then tested whether environmental factors (parental knowledge and peer deviance) moderated polygenic risk to predict alcohol problems in the FinnTwin12 sample. We found evidence for both polygenic association and for additive polygene-environment interaction. Higher polygenic scores predicted a greater number of alcohol problems (range of Pearson partial correlations 0.07–0.08, all p-values ≤ 0.01). Moreover, genetic influences were significantly more pronounced under conditions of low parental knowledge or high peer deviance (unstandardized regression coefficients (b), p-values (p), and percent of variance (R²) accounted for by interaction terms: b = 1.54, p = 0.02, R² = 0.33%; b = 0.94, p = 0.04, R² = 0.30%, respectively). Supplementary set-based analyses indicated that the individual top single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) contributing to the polygenic scores were not individually enriched for gene-environment interaction. Although the magnitude of the observed effects are small, this study illustrates the usefulness of polygenic approaches for understanding the pathways by which measured genetic predispositions come together with environmental factors to predict complex behavioral outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessReview

The Epigenome View: An Effort towards Non-Invasive Prenatal Diagnosis

by Elisavet A. Papageorgiou, George Koumbaris, Elena Kypri, Michael Hadjidaniel and Philippos C. Patsalis

Genes 2014, 5(2), 310-329; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020310 - 9 Apr 2014

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8258

Abstract

Epigenetic modifications have proven to play a significant role in cancer development, as well as fetal development. Taking advantage of the knowledge acquired during the last decade, great interest has been shown worldwide in deciphering the fetal epigenome towards the development of methylation-based [...] Read more.

Epigenetic modifications have proven to play a significant role in cancer development, as well as fetal development. Taking advantage of the knowledge acquired during the last decade, great interest has been shown worldwide in deciphering the fetal epigenome towards the development of methylation-based non-invasive prenatal tests (NIPT). In this review, we highlight the different approaches implemented, such as sodium bisulfite conversion, restriction enzyme digestion and methylated DNA immunoprecipitation, for the identification of differentially methylated regions (DMRs) between free fetal DNA found in maternal blood and DNA from maternal blood cells. Furthermore, we evaluate the use of selected DMRs identified towards the development of NIPT for fetal chromosomal aneuploidies. In addition, we perform a comparison analysis, evaluate the performance of each assay and provide a comprehensive discussion on the potential use of different methylation-based technologies in retrieving the fetal methylome, with the aim of further expanding the development of NIPT assays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessReview

Reading and Language Disorders: The Importance of Both Quantity and Quality

by Dianne F. Newbury, Anthony P. Monaco and Silvia Paracchini

Genes 2014, 5(2), 285-309; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020285 - 4 Apr 2014

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 11997

Abstract

Reading and language disorders are common childhood conditions that often co-occur with each other and with other neurodevelopmental impairments. There is strong evidence that disorders, such as dyslexia and Specific Language Impairment (SLI), have a genetic basis, but we expect the contributing genetic [...] Read more.

Reading and language disorders are common childhood conditions that often co-occur with each other and with other neurodevelopmental impairments. There is strong evidence that disorders, such as dyslexia and Specific Language Impairment (SLI), have a genetic basis, but we expect the contributing genetic factors to be complex in nature. To date, only a few genes have been implicated in these traits. Their functional characterization has provided novel insight into the biology of neurodevelopmental disorders. However, the lack of biological markers and clear diagnostic criteria have prevented the collection of the large sample sizes required for well-powered genome-wide screens. One of the main challenges of the field will be to combine careful clinical assessment with high throughput genetic technologies within multidisciplinary collaborations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessReview

Architecture of Inherited Susceptibility to Colorectal Cancer: A Voyage of Discovery

by Nicola Whiffin and Richard S. Houlston

Genes 2014, 5(2), 270-284; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020270 - 27 Mar 2014

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 7826

Abstract

This review looks back at five decades of research into genetic susceptibility to colorectal cancer (CRC) and the insights these studies have provided. Initial evidence of a genetic basis of CRC stems from epidemiological studies in the 1950s and is further provided by [...] Read more.

This review looks back at five decades of research into genetic susceptibility to colorectal cancer (CRC) and the insights these studies have provided. Initial evidence of a genetic basis of CRC stems from epidemiological studies in the 1950s and is further provided by the existence of multiple dominant predisposition syndromes. Genetic linkage and positional cloning studies identified the first high-penetrance genes for CRC in the 1980s and 1990s. More recent genome-wide association studies have identified common low-penetrance susceptibility loci and provide support for a polygenic model of disease susceptibility. These observations suggest a high proportion of CRC may arise in a group of susceptible individuals as a consequence of the combined effects of common low-penetrance risk alleles and rare variants conferring moderate CRC risks. Despite these advances, however, currently identified loci explain only a small fraction of the estimated heritability to CRC. It is hoped that a new generation of sequencing projects will help explain this missing heritability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Grand Celebration: 10th Anniversary of the Human Genome Project)

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Open AccessArticle

Single-Nucleotide Variations in Cardiac Arrhythmias: Prospects for Genomics and Proteomics Based Biomarker Discovery and Diagnostics

by Ayman Abunimer, Krista Smith, Tsung-Jung Wu, Phuc Lam, Vahan Simonyan and Raja Mazumder

Genes 2014, 5(2), 254-269; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes5020254 - 27 Mar 2014

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 7469

Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases are a large contributor to causes of early death in developed countries. Some of these conditions, such as sudden cardiac death and atrial fibrillation, stem from arrhythmias—a spectrum of conditions with abnormal electrical activity in the heart. Genome-wide association studies can [...] Read more.

Cardiovascular diseases are a large contributor to causes of early death in developed countries. Some of these conditions, such as sudden cardiac death and atrial fibrillation, stem from arrhythmias—a spectrum of conditions with abnormal electrical activity in the heart. Genome-wide association studies can identify single nucleotide variations (SNVs) that may predispose individuals to developing acquired forms of arrhythmias. Through manual curation of published genome-wide association studies, we have collected a comprehensive list of 75 SNVs associated with cardiac arrhythmias. Ten of the SNVs result in amino acid changes and can be used in proteomic-based detection methods. In an effort to identify additional non-synonymous mutations that affect the proteome, we analyzed the post-translational modification S-nitrosylation, which is known to affect cardiac arrhythmias. We identified loss of seven known S-nitrosylation sites due to non-synonymous single nucleotide variations (nsSNVs). For predicted nitrosylation sites we found 1429 proteins where the sites are modified due to nsSNV. Analysis of the predicted S-nitrosylation dataset for over- or under-representation (compared to the complete human proteome) of pathways and functional elements shows significant statistical over-representation of the blood coagulation pathway. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis displays statistically over-represented terms related to muscle contraction, receptor activity, motor activity, cystoskeleton components, and microtubule activity. Through the genomic and proteomic context of SNVs and S-nitrosylation sites presented in this study, researchers can look for variation that can predispose individuals to cardiac arrhythmias. Such attempts to elucidate mechanisms of arrhythmia thereby add yet another useful parameter in predicting susceptibility for cardiac diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Genomics and Genetic Diseases)

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Genes, Volume 5, Issue 2 (June 2014) – 13 articles , Pages 254-496

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