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Article

The Effect of the Construction of a Tillage Layer on the Infiltration of Snowmelt Water into Freeze–Thaw Soil in Cold Regions

by
Ziqiao Zhou
1,†,
Sisi Liu
1,†,
Bingyu Zhu
1,
Rui Wang
2,
Chao Liu
3 and
Renjie Hou
1,*
1
School of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
2
Heilongjiang Province Five Building Construction Engineering Co., Ltd., Harbin 150090, China
3
Heilongjiang Province River and Lake Chief System Security Center, Harbin 150000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Water 2024, 16(22), 3224; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223224
Submission received: 19 September 2024 / Revised: 2 November 2024 / Accepted: 7 November 2024 / Published: 9 November 2024
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The snow melting and runoff process in the black soil area of Northeast China has led to soil quality degradation in farmland, posing a threat to sustainable agricultural development. To investigate the regulatory effect of tillage layer construction on the infiltration characteristics of snowmelt water, a typical black soil in Northeast China was selected as the research object. Based on field experiments, four protective tillage treatments (CK: control treatment; SB: sub-soiling treatment; BC: biochar regulation treatment; SB + BC: sub-soiling tillage and biochar composite treatment) were set up, and the evolution of soil physical structure, soil thawing rate, snow melting infiltration characteristics, and the feedback effect of frozen layer evolution on snowmelt infiltration were analyzed. The research results indicate that sub-soiling and the application of biochar effectively regulate soil aggregate particle size and increase soil total porosity. Among them, at the 0–10 cm soil layer, the soil mean weight diameter (MWD) values under SB, BC, and SB + BC treatment conditions increased by 6.25%, 16.67%, and 19.35%, respectively, compared to the CK treatment. Sub-soiling increases the frequency of energy exchange between the soil and the environment, while biochar enhances soil heat storage performance and accelerates the melting rate of frozen soil layers. Therefore, under the SB + BC treatment conditions, the maximum soil freezing rate increased by 21.92%, 5.67%, and 25.12% compared to the CK, SB, and BC treatments, respectively. In addition, sub-soiling and biochar treatment effectively improved the penetration performance of snowmelt water into frozen soil layers, significantly enhancing the soil’s ability to store snowmelt water. Overall, it can be concluded that biochar regulation has a good improvement effect on the infiltration capacity of surface soil snowmelt water. Sub-soiling can enhance the overall snowmelt water holding capacity, and the synergistic effect of biochar and deep tillage is the best. These research results have important guiding significance for the rational construction of a protective tillage system model and the improvement of the utilization efficiency of snowmelt water resources in black soil areas.

1. Introduction

The black soil region in Northeast China is one of the three major black soil belts in the world, with a snow coverage area of 1.19 × 105 km2 and an average annual snow thickness range of 20–25 cm in winter [1]. Influenced by the special climatic conditions of seasonal frozen soil areas, snow accumulates and begins to melt in spring. According to the meteorological data statistics for many years, the average annual snowmelt volume is as high as 4.25 × 1010 m3 in the black soil region of Northeast China [2]. The infiltration of snowmelt water into the soil can significantly increase the soil moisture content and improve soil moisture, providing the required soil moisture for the critical period of seed germination and growth in spring, and playing an important role in alleviating the “spring drought” in black soil areas [3]. Additionally, snowmelt water infiltrates through the soil layer and can replenish groundwater resources, which contributes to long-term water resources management and maintaining groundwater sustainability [4]. However, constrained by regional topography, soil type, and meteorological conditions, snowmelt water resources cannot infiltrate smoothly and orderly, which instead has adverse effects on soil structure, nutrient cycling processes, and microbial diversity and function, leading to a significant decrease in agricultural yield [5]. Therefore, it is urgent to explore a reasonable and efficient way to utilize snowmelt water, which will provide technical support for improving agricultural water efficiency in black soil areas.
As an important surface hydrological process in mid- to high-latitude regions, snow accumulation and melting are extremely important for promoting the material cycle and energy balance [6]. In the black soil region of Northeast China, nearly 80% of the snow is converted into snowmelt water, excluding snow sublimation and snowmelt water evaporation. It is worth noting that the freeze-thaw cycle, as a common phenomenon in cold black soil regions, exacerbates the complexity characteristics of snowmelt hydrological processes [7]. During the snow melting period, the permafrost interlayer in the soil has not yet melted, which slows down and hinders the infiltration of snowmelt water, easily leading to waterlogging disasters in low-lying areas [8]. Firstly, waterlogging disasters can damage soil structure, form sloughing and hardening, and reduce soil permeability and water infiltration, which causes regional ecosystem energy shortage and affects soil quality and agricultural productivity [5]. Furthermore, waterlogging stress in farmland can decrease the concentration of dissolved oxygen in soil water, inhibiting root respiration during the early stages of crop growth, thereby weakening root energy status and the structure and function of cells [9]. Based on the above factors, the phenomenon of “rotten root, putrid root, and dead seedling” often occurs at the crop seedling stage, which seriously affects crop habitat health and greatly threatens high and stable grain production [10].
However, in sloping cropland areas, runoff effects occur when the rate of snow ablation is greater than the rate of infiltration, and snowmelt runoff induces much greater soil erosion than rainfall scouring processes [11]. Previous studies have shown that snowmelt runoff and frozen soil rainfall are the main driving factors of soil erosion in black soil regions. Starkloff [12] et al. stated that spring snowmelt runoff weakened the resistance effect of frozen–thawed soils to erosion, thereby exacerbating soil erosion in farmland. Moreover, soil erosion caused by scouring can reduce the soil structural stability and water-holding characteristics, and increase the uncertainty of nutrient migration and diffusion, thus reducing the water and fertilizer utilization efficiency [13]. The erosion process of snowmelt runoff on sloping farmland leads to the “pinching, thinning, and hardening” of black soil layer, resulting in the decline of agricultural productivity and ecosystem degradation [14]. Furthermore, runoff effects can reduce soil aeration and water retention capacity, and decrease organic matter and nutrient elements in the soil. This will inhibit the growth and reproduction of microorganisms and affect their population structure and biodiversity, thereby damaging the health and stability of soil ecosystems [15].
In order to effectively block and control the impact of snowmelt runoff on the soil erosion process, previous researchers have mainly carried out soil and water conservation and restoration studies from three aspects, namely, biological, chemical, and engineering measures [16]. These measures effectively inhibit the effect of soil erosion on farmland by enhancing the stability of soil aggregates and slowing down the scouring force of snowmelt. Nzeyimana [17] et al. found that vegetation roots promote soil structure looseness through interpenetration, thereby increasing snowmelt infiltration rate and effectively preventing soil erosion. However, the growth cycle of plants is relatively long and sensitive to climate change, with strong limitations. In addition, Priya E [18] et al. proposed that the application of slow-release fertilizers can aggregate particles on the soil surface to form a physical barrier, alleviate adverse environmental interference, and actively improve soil quality and nutrient efficiency. Simultaneously, it was found that setting horizontal ridges and furrows in the direction perpendicular to the slope can cause part of the sediment carried by runoff to be deposited in the furrows and reduce the scouring force of snowmelt runoff, thus reducing the amount of runoff and sediment loss [19]. Recently, the sub-soiling system has been widely applied in the field of soil habitat restoration in black soil areas as a key technique for conservation tillage. In addition, biochar, as an organic polymer water-retaining material, has a rich pore structure and a large specific surface area, which has a positive impact on soil moisture retention and fertilization. Practice has shown that tillage regulation greatly enhances soil water storage capacity, but biochar may, to some extent, compensate for the deficiency of tillage regulation in water retention. Therefore, this study aims to enhance the snow melting and infiltration performance of frozen-thawed soil by coupling and coordinating conservation tillage modes with external medium materials.
Based on the typical sloping farmland in the black soil area of Songnen Plain in Northeast China, sub-soiling, biochar regulation, and a treatment combining the two were established, and this study investigated (1) the evolution characteristics of soil freezing depth under the conservation tillage mode; (2) the snow melting rate and infiltration characteristics; (3) the mutual feedback mechanism of frozen layer evolution to snowmelt runoff; and (4) the snowmelt infiltration enhancement and moisture preservation mechanism. The research results provide important support for alleviating spring drought and waterlogging in black soil areas and ensuring effective water supply at the crop seedling stage.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Overview of the Study Area

The test was carried out at the Heilongjiang Institute of Water Resources Research (45°30′23″ N, 126°54′17″ E), situated in the core area of the Songnen Plain, which is part of a typical seasonal frost region. This area features fertile soil, with black soil (Chernozem) accounting for more than 60% of all soil types. Influenced by the temperate continental monsoon climate, the region experiences cold and dry winters, and hot and rainy summers. The average annual temperature is 2.46 °C, with an annual average rainfall of 550 mm, which is mainly concentrated in July and August, accounting for about 65% of the annual precipitation. The average annual snowfall in winter is 23.6 cm, with the snow cover lasting for about 110 days. Due to the low temperatures in winter, soil freezing typically starts in November and lasts until March of the following year, with the maximum soil freezing depth reaching up to 150 cm, and the soil fully thawing around May of the following year. The experiment to simulate the erosion from spring snowmelt runoff was conducted on a 3° slope with four 15 m2 plots (3 m × 5 m) spaced at 5 m intervals. According to field research, the soil pH value in the research area is approximately 7.8 ± 0.5, and the contents of available nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium are 33.25–42.19, 28.79–75.33, and 160.43–245.24 mg·kg−1, respectively. In addition, the electrical conductivity of the soil ranges from 239 to 1200 μs·cm−1. The meteorological conditions in the research area are shown in Figure 1.

2.2. Materials and Equipment

In consideration of the need for soil nutrient element cycling and green sustainable development in agricultural production, biochar was selected as an exogenous medium. The biochar used in this study was produced from corn straw as the raw material. First, the straw was placed in a muffle furnace (STM–6–12, Henan Sante Furnace Industry Technology Co., Ltd., Luoyang, China), with a heating rate set at 15 °C·min−1. Subsequently, it was pyrolyzed for 2 h under anaerobic conditions at 500 °C to produce the biochar [20]. The production efficiency of biochar fertilizer was 31.74%, the organic carbon content in the material was 631.15 g·kg−1, and the contents of total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total potassium were 11.94, 4.04, and 9.31 g·kg−1, respectively. The resulting biochar was ground and passed through a 2 mm sieve to facilitate uniform mixing with soil particles later on. Soil sub-soiling was carried out using a self-developed tractor-mounted sub–soiler, with a loosening depth of 35 to 40 cm, ensuring that the original soil layers remained essentially undisturbed, breaking through the plow pan, and deepening the cultivated layer. The mixing of biochar with soil particles was achieved using a rotary tiller for turning and conditioning, and the surface was leveled to ensure proper seedbed preparation for crop growth periods [21].

2.3. Experimental Design Setup

To effectively regulate the snowmelt-infiltration-runoff process on sloped cultivated land in the black soil region, this study set up four treatments: sub-soiling and plowing treatment (denoted as SB), with a loosening depth of 40 cm; biochar treatment (denoted as BC), with an application rate of 3 t·hm−2 and a rotary tillage depth of 20 cm; combined sub-soiling and biochar treatment (denoted as SB + BC); and a control group (denoted as CK), which only involved rotary tillage at the soil surface from 0 to 20 cm. Soil samples were collected regularly at depths of 0–10 cm, 10–20 cm, 20–30 cm, and 30–40 cm, with three replicates for each sampling to obtain soil physical parameters and structural characteristics.
The experiment employed a laser particle size analyzer (Mastersizer 3000, Malvern Panalytical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) to determine the soil mechanical composition [22]. Soil parameters such as dry bulk density, saturated moisture content, natural moisture content, field capacity, and total porosity were measured using the cutting ring method [23]. The distribution characteristics of soil water-stable aggregates were assessed by the wet sieving method [24], and soil aggregate stability indicators, including the mean weight diameter and the percentage of water-stable aggregates larger than 0.25 mm, were calculated based on the proportion of aggregates of various sizes. A frost meter was used to gauge the depth of the frost layer and the thawing rate during the soil thawing process. Additionally, a steel ruler was used for daily manual measurements of snow depth, which enabled the calculation of snowmelt volume and melt rate.The soil physical and chemical properties parameters are shown in Table 1.

2.4. Indicator Calculation

2.4.1. Three-Phase Distance Structure Index

The Soil Three-Phase Structure Distance Index (STPSD) is computed based on the soil’s three-phase ratio, utilizing a soil three-phase meter (Daiki-1130, produced by Shanghai Zequan Technology Co., Ltd., located in Shanghai, China) for measurement. The calculation formula is as follows:
STPSD = x g − 50 2 + x g − 50 ⋅ x y − 25 + x y − 25 2
where xg represents the volume proportion of the soil solid phase, and xy represents the volume proportion of the soil liquid phase.

2.4.2. Snowmelt Infiltration Volume

The analysis of snowmelt water infiltration volume is based on the balance relationship formed among snowfall, evaporation, runoff, and infiltration, which can be expressed as:
Q r = Q t − Q j − Q z
where Qr represents the infiltration volume during the snowmelt period (mm); Qt represents the snow water equivalent of the snowfall (mm); Qj represents the runoff volume during the snowmelt period (mm); and Qz represents the evaporation volume (mm).

2.4.3. Soil Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity and Cumulative Infiltration

The cumulative soil infiltration was measured using a SW080B tension infiltrometer (DianDian Technology Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China), and the saturated hydraulic conductivity was calculated based on the amount of water infiltrated per unit time. The soil infiltration process was measured at negative pressure heads of −5 cm and −10 cm, with data recorded every 1 min until stable infiltration was achieved and measurement was stopped. The calculation of saturated hydraulic conductivity was based on the formula proposed by WOODING [25] for the stable infiltration rate in soil with a radius of R, and the formula by GARDNER [26]:
Q = π r 2 K 1 + 4 π r α
K ( H ) = K s a t α H
where Q represents the volume of water infiltrated per unit time, cm3·h−1; H represents the soil surface tension, N·cm−1; Ksat represents the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity, cm·h−1; K represents the hydraulic conductivity, cm·h−1; r represents the radius of the storage pipe, cm; and α represents a constant.
By combining Equations (3) and (4), we can obtain:
Q H 1 = π r 2 K s a t α H 1 1 + 4 π r α
Q H 2 = π r 2 K s a t α H 2 1 + 4 π r α
α = ln Q H 2 / Q H 1 H 2 − H 1
where H1 represents the soil surface tension, with a value of −5 cm, and H2 represents the soil surface tension, with a value of −10 cm.
By substituting the calculated α into the WOODING formula and the GARDNER formula, the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity can be obtained.

2.4.4. Freeze–Thaw Soil Penetration Index

Because the soil during the thawing period is in a stage of transitioning from frozen to unfrozen, neither the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the frozen soil nor that of the unfrozen soil alone can fully represent the soil infiltration capacity at this time. Therefore, this study evaluates the soil infiltration capacity during the thawing period based on the saturated hydraulic conductivity of both frozen and unfrozen soils and a normalization factor Xi. The calculation formula is as follows:
X i = a v e r a g e X − X F S min X F S max − X F S min , X − X S min X S max − X S min
where XFSmax represents the maximum saturated hydraulic conductivity in the frozen soil; XFSmin represents the minimum saturated hydraulic conductivity in the frozen soil; XSmax represents the maximum saturated hydraulic conductivity in the unfrozen soil; and XSmin represents the minimum saturated hydraulic conductivity in the unfrozen soil.

2.5. Data Analysis

The data from this experiment were processed and analyzed using IBM SPSS 26.0 and Origin 2022, and the images were plotted. The mean and standard deviation (S.D.) for each experiment were calculated. One-way ANOVA with the Duncan multiple range test was used to test for differences between groups (p < 0.05).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Evolution of Soil Structure

The deep loosening of farmland soil and the application of exogenous biochar effectively regulated the soil MWD value (Figure 2a). Specific analysis shows that at the 0–10 cm soil layer, the MWD value of the BC treatment soil increased by 16.67% compared to the CK treatment. This may be due to the porous structure of biochar promoting the aggregation effect of soil mineral particles, improving the anti-breakage property of soil aggregates, and thereby increasing the soil MWD value [27]. Meanwhile, the added exogenous biochar can also stimulate soil microorganisms to secrete cementing substances to enhance the stability of aggregates [28]. Additionally, at the 0–10 cm soil layer, the MWD value of the SB treatment soil increased by 6.25% compared to the CK treatment. The soil particle size in the sub-soiling treatment increased relative to surface tillage, while the particle uniformity significantly decreased, leading to an upward trend in the soil MWD value [29]. As the soil depth increased, at the 30–40 cm layer, the MWD values of the SB and SB + BC treatments decreased by 16.42% and 18.91%, respectively, compared to the CK group, primarily due to the sub-soiling treatment disrupting the soil structure below the plow pan, thus reducing the stability of soil aggregates [30].
Similarly, there were significant differences in the impact of biochar application and sub-soiling on the soil WR0.25 proportion (Figure 2b). For the 0–10 cm soil layer, the WR0.25 of the BC and SB + BC treatments significantly increased by 29.59% and 37.85%, respectively, compared to the CK treatment. The large specific surface area of biochar enhances the adsorption and retention capacity of organic matter, improving the aggregation degree of soil structure, thus increasing the WR0.25 proportion [31]. Additionally, under the SB treatment, the WR0.25 also showed a certain degree of increase compared to the CK treatment.
Consistently, the total soil porosity and STPSD values are depicted in Figure 2c,d. For the 0–10 cm soil layer, the total porosity in the BC treatment was found to be 6.03% higher than that in the CK treatment. This is due to the fact that biochar possesses a porous structure, and its incorporation into the soil reduces bulk density while enhancing total porosity [32]. Conversely, the total porosity in the SB treatment was 7.73% lower than in the CK treatment, primarily because the particle size of soil aggregates in the sub-soiled soil is generally larger than that resulting from rotary tillage, leading to a reduction in the interconnectivity between soil particles and a decrease in total porosity. As the soil depth increased, at the 30–40 cm layer, the total porosity under the SB and SB + BC treatments was 13.06% and 12.79% higher, respectively, than that under the CK treatment, reaffirming the trend in total porosity from highest to lowest as follows: biochar > rotary tillage > deep tillage > no tillage.
Furthermore, both sub-soiling and biochar treatments significantly reduced the soil STPSD values (Figure 2d). For the 0–10 cm and 30–40 cm soil layers, the STPSD values for the SB + BC treatment were 14.52% and 10.50% lower, respectively, compared to the CK group. Biochar can effectively improve soil structure and adjust soil properties related to water, nutrients, air, and heat, thereby moving the soil phase ratio closer to an ideal state [33]. Additionally, the sub-soiling process increases soil porosity, enhancing the capacity for soil gas exchange and liquid flow, which in turn reduces the soil STPSD value [34].

3.2. Soil Melting Process

The soil melting process under different treatments is shown in Figure 3. The thickness of soil frost layer showed a gradual decrease as higher temperatures gradually returned during spring. Specific analyses showed that the thickness of the soil frost layer at the beginning of the thawing in CK treatment was 123.5 cm, which was reduced by 5.13% in the BC treatment relative to the CK treatment. However, the thickness of the soil frost layer increased by 4.62% in the SB treatment. This may be due to the fact that the rich pore structure of biochar hinders heat conduction, reduces heat loss, and significantly inhibits soil freezing [35]. In contrast, sub-tillage reduced soil compactness and enhanced the capability of the soil to exchange energy with the external environment, and the accelerated loss of energy from the soil resulted in a greater depth of freeze than the remaining treatments [36]. The thickness of the soil frost layer gradually decreases as energy transfer between the soil and the environment increases. For instance, the thickness of soil frost layer was reduced by 7.83% and 5.32% in the BC and SB + BC treatments, respectively, relative to the CK treatment on 10 March 2024. The application of biochar significantly reduces the reflectivity of the soil to light, and the sufficient absorption of light and heat by the soil raises the soil temperature, which leads to a rapid thinning of the thickness of the soil frost layer [37]. Additionally, the soil freezing layer under the SB + BC treatment was completely thawed on 24 April 2024, which was 3~9 days earlier compared to the CK, SB, and BC treatments, with the shortest time required for the soil thawing process.
Previous studies have confirmed that the frozen soil layer of farmland shows the characteristics of “two-way melting” from top to bottom on the surface and from bottom to top on the ground under the influence of the external environment and the underground heat source [38]. The soil melting rate showed a trend of rapid increase–smooth fluctuation–sharp decrease. Specific analysis showed that the soil melting rate was the highest under the SB + BC treatment, and the peak value could reach 3.17 cm/d. It increased by 21.92, 5.67, and 26.8% compared to the CK, SB, and BC treatments, respectively. It is worth noting that the time of occurrence of the peak soil melting rate under the SB + BC treatment was similarly earlier compared to the CK and SB treatments, while it was equal to the BC treatment. Sub-tillage destroys the dense structure of the bottom layer of the plow and promotes the process of energy exchange between the soil and the environment, which in turn accelerates the rate of soil melting [39]. In addition, the application of biochar can effectively reduce soil heat capacity, resulting in the increased sensitivity of soil temperature fluctuations to environmental changes [40]. Further analysis showed that the melting rate at soil thawing was 1.03 cm/d in the SB + BC treatment, enhanced by 139.53–178.38% compared to the remaining three treatments, which again verified the above conclusion.

3.3. Snow Melting Process

Figure 4 depicts the evolutionary trend in snowmelt rate under different treatments. Overall, the snowmelt rate showed an increasing and then decreasing trend. For instance, 14 days after the start of melting, the snowmelt rate peaked at 14.5 mm/d in the CK treatment. Furthermore, the peak snowmelt rates in the SB, BC, and SB + BC treatments were 1.62, 1.85, and 1.73 mm/d, respectively. This suggested that tillage patterns and biochar application influenced the rate of snow melting. The average snow melting rate was 7.56 mm/d in the CK treatment, and in the SB and BC treatments, it was increased by 13.36% and 11.78%, respectively, compared with the CK treatment. The average snow melting rate under the SB + BC treatment was at the maximum value. The insulating effect of biochar inhibits soil heat loss, keeping surface temperatures relatively high, which in turn enhances the snow melting rate [41]. Additionally, different tillage treatments had differential effects on the duration of snow melting. For example, the snow began to melt on 14 February 2024, and melted completely after 27 days in the BC treatment, 2~6 days earlier than in the remaining three treatments. However, the complete melting of snow in the SB treatment was delayed by 2 days compared to the BC treatment.
Snow melting is accompanied by evaporation and sublimation processes, and snowmelt water infiltration occurs through the soil–snow interface. When the soil is saturated or the rate of melting is greater than the rate of infiltration, runoff will be formed at the surface [42]. Statistics on the infiltration process of snowmelt water under different treatment conditions show that the cumulative infiltration curve exhibits an “S”-shaped trend. In particular, the cumulative infiltration of soil snowmelt water was 124.3 mm in the CK treatment, while the cumulative infiltration of snowmelt in the SB, BC, and SB + BC treatments was 24.0, 13.9, and 34.5 mm, respectively, relative to the CK treatment. First, sub-tillage significantly increases total soil porosity and improves soil water storage capacity, which in turn reduces ineffective runoff loss [43]. Meanwhile, the rich pore structure of biochar increases the capacity of the soil to hold snowmelt water and enhances the effect of soil water conductivity and infiltration [44]. In particular, the cumulative infiltration was significantly higher in the SB + BC treatment than in the BC treatment, with an enhancement of 14.91%. This suggested that a single application of biochar is not conducive to improving snowmelt water utilization efficiency, and needs to be combined with appropriate tillage practices to achieve better results.

3.4. Soil Frost Depth and Snowmelt Inter-Feeding Mechanisms

The snow melting rate and soil thawing rate were linearly fitted, and there was a significant positive correlation between them (p < 0.05) (Figure 5a,d). The slope of the scattered fitted curve was 0.553 in the CK treatment, whereas the slopes of the fitted lines were 0.768, 0.596, and 1.003 in the SB, BC, and SB + BC treatments, respectively. They were higher than that of the CK treatment, and the correlation was most significant in the composite treatment. This confirms the conclusion of Hou et al. [45] that biochar improves soil thawing in seasonal permafrost zones and enhances the ability of soil to absorb snowmelt water. Meanwhile, biochar has a dark color and promotes the process of exchange of radiant energy from the soil to the environment, thus accelerating the rate of snow melting [46]. Sub-tillage destroys the compact structure of the deep soil, enhances the non-tubular porosity and air permeability of the soil, and accelerates the processes of freezing, soil thawing, and snow melting, and thus enhances their relevance [47]. Yan et al. [48] found that sub-tillage can promote soil microbial growth and organic matter decomposition, which promote heat transfer from the soil, and thus accelerate the process of permafrost thawing and snow melting.
Further exploration of the response relationship between the thickness of the soil frost layer and cumulative infiltration revealed a significant negative correlation (p < 0.05). The soil thawing process is accompanied by snowmelt infiltration, and when the snowmelt water infiltration to the location of the permafrost interlayer is blocked, the cumulative infiltration of snowmelt is reduced. The slopes of the fitted lines for the BC and SB treatments were reduced by 0.174 and 0.191, respectively, compared with the CK treatment. This indicated that the sub-tillage and biochar treatments mitigated the impedance effect of the permafrost interlayer on the infiltration of snowmelt. The slope of the fitted line for the composite treatment of SB + BC was at the minimum value. The application of biochar to the soil increases the soil pore channels and improves the infiltration performance of snowmelt water in the permafrost interlayer, weakening the negative correlation between them [49]. In addition, sub-tillage can improve soil pore scale distribution and enhance soil saturated hydraulic conductivity and infiltration performance. Snowmelt water infiltration can reduce the structural stability of the permafrost interlayer, and the two form a mutual-integration, mutually reinforcing equilibrium state [50].

3.5. Mechanistic Analysis

3.5.1. Soil Permeability

The accumulated infiltration of soil under different treatments and tension conditions is shown in Figure 6. In the same period of time, the overall change trend in accumulated soil infiltration tends to be consistent. Detailed analysis shows that the accumulated soil infiltration increases rapidly during the first 10 min, and then gradually stabilizes. Taking the pre-freeze–thaw period as an example, when the tension value was −5 cm, the accumulated soil infiltration under the CK treatment was 4.61 cm at 60 min. In contrast, the accumulated soil infiltration under the SB, BC, and SB + BC treatments increased by 116.27%, 60.30%, and 149.46%, respectively, compared to the CK group, indicating that sub-soiling and biochar regulation effectively improved soil permeability. Soil infiltration capacity is related to soil texture, mechanical composition, and aggregate distribution; moreover, soil infiltration capacity can directly affect soil water retention capacity, which is crucial to agricultural production [51]. This variation may be related to changes in soil pore quantity and the composition of aggregates. Sub-soiling broadens soil water channels to a certain extent, and increases the number and proportion of large pores in the soil [52]. At the same time, the content of organic matter particles is an important factor affecting soil moisture movement. With the application of biochar, the correlation between soil particles and moisture movement is enhanced, leading to improved soil infiltration capacity [53].
When the tension value becomes −10 cm, the trend in soil cumulative infiltration under different treatment conditions is consistent with that at the tension value of −5 cm; in order from the highest to the lowest, the treatments are SB + BC, SB, BC, and CK. However, its specific value has shown varying degrees of decrease. It can be observed that under CK treatment conditions, the reduction in cumulative soil infiltration ranges from 9.63% to 23.31%, while under SB, BC, and SB + BC treatment conditions, the reductions in cumulative soil infiltration are 11.57% to 39.31%, 8.86% to 25.98%, and 10.56% to 28.68%, respectively. This indicates that as the tension increases, the interaction force between the liquid molecules become stronger, which weakens the interaction between liquid and solid molecules, thereby reducing the ability of liquid to penetrate into the solid [54]. In addition, compared with the characteristics of soil cumulative infiltration in different periods, it can be seen that the soil cumulative infiltration in the melting period showed a decreasing trend in different degrees compared with that before the freezing and thawing period. This may be due to the freeze–thaw cycle causing the collapse of the soil skeleton, leading to the recombination of soil aggregates, which weakens the soil infiltration capacity [55].

3.5.2. Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity of Frozen and Unfrozen Soils

The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil in frozen and unfrozen states is shown in Figure 7. Both sub-soiling and biochar application have differential effects on the saturated hydraulic conductivity of frozen and unfrozen soils, and the synergistic effect of sub-soiling and biochar is the most significant. Firstly, taking the 0–10 cm soil layer as an example, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of unfrozen soil under CK treatment conditions was 0.733 cm·h−1, while in the SB, BC, and SB + BC treatment conditions, it increased by 19.24%, 24.56%, and 30.42%, respectively, compared to the CK group. This is mainly attributed to the effective reduction in bulk density by adding biochar to the soil, resulting in an increase in soil field water holding capacity, capillary porosity, and total porosity, which in turn leads to an increase in soil saturated hydraulic conductivity [56,57]. Meanwhile, according to the results of Section 3.1, it can be concluded that biochar treatment can improve the stability of soil aggregates and effectively regulate soil pore structure and compositional structure, thereby helping to increase soil saturation hydraulic conductivity [58]. However, treatments such as SB and BC have little effect on the changes in the saturated hydraulic conductivity of frozen soil. Taking the 0–10 cm soil layer as an example, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of frozen soil treated with CK was 0.069 cm·h−1, while in the SB, BC, and SB + BC treatments, it was 0.078, 0.083, and 0.089 cm·h−1, respectively. This is similar to the research results of Xu et al. (2021) [59], which showed that under freezing conditions, the water in soil mainly exists in the form of ice, which limits the movement and infiltration of water. Whether adding biochar or sub-soiling treatment, it is limited by ice crystals, and the difference in the saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil decreases.
As the depth of the soil layer increases, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of both unfrozen and frozen soils shows varying degrees of decrease at the 10–20 cm and 20–30 cm soil layers. It is worth noting that when the soil depth reaches 30–40 cm, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of unfrozen soil treated with CK is 0.538 cm·h−1, and the saturated hydraulic conductivity of unfrozen soil under SB and SB + BC treatment conditions increased by 23.23% and 31.59%, respectively, compared to the CK group. However, the saturated hydraulic conductivity of unfrozen soil under the BC treatment is not significantly different from that of the CK group. This is mainly due to the uniform application of biochar and rotary tillage at the 0–20 cm soil layer in the BC treatment, while the 20–40 cm soil layer is not regulated by biochar treatment, so it is impossible to increase the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil in deep layers, which, to some extent, limits the cumulative infiltration of snowmelt water.

3.5.3. Soil Penetration Coefficient

The penetration coefficient (Xi) of snowmelt water on frozen–thawed soil during the soil melting period is shown in Figure 7. The overall trend shows that the penetration coefficient of frozen–thawed soil in the 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm soil layers is in the following order from small to large: CK < SB < BC < SB + BC. For example, the soil penetration coefficient of the CK treatment in the 0–10 cm layer was 0.57, while that of the SB, BC, and SB + BC treatments increased by 24.56%, 35.09%, and 43.86%, respectively, compared to the CK group. This may be because the addition of biochar can reduce soil bulk density, weaken soil compaction, and increase the penetration coefficient of snowmelt water into frozen–thawed soil [60]. In addition, the application of biochar can effectively regulate the soil pore structure and increase the connectivity between soil pores [61]. At the same time, biochar has good insulation properties, which increase the temperature of frozen–thawed soil, reduce soil hardness, promote the vertical infiltration of water, and improve the soil penetration coefficient [62]. Overall comparison shows that the soil permeability coefficient is highest under the SB + BC treatment condition. Similarly, as the depth of the soil layer increases, the soil penetration coefficient relatively decreases, which is similar to the research results of O’Neil et al. (2020) [63]; that is, the flow of soil moisture during the melting period shows a clear vertical characteristic and preferentially infiltrates downwards along the surface soil. Due to the delayed thawing rate of deep soil, the penetration ability of snowmelt water gradually slows down.
In addition, at the soil layers of 20–30 cm and 30–40 cm, the soil penetration coefficient under the SB and SB + BC treatments increased by 21.74~31.71% and 32.61~43.90%, respectively, compared to the CK treatment, while under the BC treatment, the soil penetration coefficient showed no significant change compared to the CK group. Sub-soiling effectively buffers the formation of ice crystals and the damage to soil structure caused by snowmelt infiltration, thereby increasing the soil penetration coefficient [64]. In addition, the calculation of the soil penetration coefficient for snowmelt in frozen–thawed soil once again shows the inherent mechanism of biochar and sub-soiling treatment in enhancing snowmelt water infiltration and soil moisture retention, revealing the effects of different regulation treatments on snowmelt water infiltration from a mechanistic perspective.

4. Conclusions

The synergistic effect of sub-soiling and biochar materials can effectively improve the utilization efficiency of snowmelt water resources. Sub-soiling disrupts the soil structure but improves soil water conductivity and retention capabilities. The application of biochar effectively regulates the composition of soil aggregates and enhances the connectivity effect of pore channels among soil particles. In the process of soil melting, sub-soiling increases the energy exchange between the soil interior and the external environment, accelerating the thawing process of the soil frozen layer. In addition, biochar has better heat storage properties, which improves the melting rate of frozen soil. During the infiltration phase of snowmelt, sub-soiling increases the soil’s ability to store snowmelt water, and the application of biochar further enhances the soil’s ability to retain and fix that water. Furthermore, the correlation analysis results show a significant positive correlation between the soil thawing rate and the snow melting rate, while there was a significant negative correlation between soil frozen layer thickness and accumulated snowmelt water infiltration. Moreover, sub-soiling and biochar materials can effectively alleviate the antagonistic effect between snowmelt infiltration and the evolution of the frozen layer, thereby maximizing the infiltration efficiency of meltwater. Practice has proven that this technological model effectively increases the soil moisture content in the plow layer to 3–5%, which is of great significance for alleviating spring soil drought and improving the crop emergence rate. However, snowmelt runoff is the result of a game between snow melting and soil infiltration, both of which are driven by meteorological conditions. Therefore, in the future, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the energy transfer effect of the atmosphere–snow–soil composite system, develop a threshold recognition method for snow melting infiltration runoff under the climate-driven mode of change, and construct an integrated protective tillage and carbon-based material-coupled and -coordinated infiltration and moisture preservation mode to provide support for improving the utilization efficiency of snowmelt water resources in cold regions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.Z. and S.L.; methodology, B.Z.; software, C.L.; validation, Z.Z., S.L. and B.Z.; formal analysis, R.W.; investigation, R.H.; resources, R.H.; data curation, R.W.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.Z.; writing—review and editing, S.L.; visualization, R.W.; supervision, C.L.; project administration, R.H.; funding acquisition, R.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2022YFD1500103), the Heilongjiang Provincial Science Fund for Outstanding Young Scholars (YQ2022E007), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52279035), the Research and Development Expense Projects of Provincial Research Institutes in Heilongjiang Province (CZKYF2023-1-A009, CZKYF2024-1-A006), and the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2023M740570).

Data Availability Statement

Data are available from the authors by request.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Rui Wang was employed by the company Heilongjiang Province Five Building Construction Engineering Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Water 16 03224 g001
Figure 1. Meteorological background conditions in the study area.
Figure 1. Meteorological background conditions in the study area.
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Figure 2. Soil structure characteristics. (a) Soil mean weight diameter; (b) proportion of soil particles > 0.25 mm in size; (c) total soil porosity; (d) soil three-phase structure distance. Different letters represent the variability of soil at different depths under the same treatment conditions (p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Soil structure characteristics. (a) Soil mean weight diameter; (b) proportion of soil particles > 0.25 mm in size; (c) total soil porosity; (d) soil three-phase structure distance. Different letters represent the variability of soil at different depths under the same treatment conditions (p < 0.05).
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Figure 3. Characterization of thickness of soil frost layer evolution. (a) represents the CK treatment; (b) represents the SB treatment; (c) represents the BC treatment; and (d) represents the SB + BC treatment.
Figure 3. Characterization of thickness of soil frost layer evolution. (a) represents the CK treatment; (b) represents the SB treatment; (c) represents the BC treatment; and (d) represents the SB + BC treatment.
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Figure 4. Snow melting and infiltration process. (a) represents the CK treatment; (b) represents the SB treatment; (c) represents the BC treatment; and (d) represents the SB + BC treatment.
Figure 4. Snow melting and infiltration process. (a) represents the CK treatment; (b) represents the SB treatment; (c) represents the BC treatment; and (d) represents the SB + BC treatment.
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Figure 5. Interaction effects of snowpack ablation infiltration and freezing depth evolution. (a–d) represent the relationship between soil thawing rate and snow melting rate under different treatments. (e–h) represent the relationship between soil frost thickness and cumulative infiltration under different treatments.
Figure 5. Interaction effects of snowpack ablation infiltration and freezing depth evolution. (a–d) represent the relationship between soil thawing rate and snow melting rate under different treatments. (e–h) represent the relationship between soil frost thickness and cumulative infiltration under different treatments.
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Figure 6. Variation curve of cumulative soil infiltration. (a) Pre-freezing period; the tension is −5 cm; (b) pre-freezing period; the tension is −10 cm; (c) post-thaw period; the tension is −5 cm; and (d) post-thaw period; the tension is −10 cm.
Figure 6. Variation curve of cumulative soil infiltration. (a) Pre-freezing period; the tension is −5 cm; (b) pre-freezing period; the tension is −10 cm; (c) post-thaw period; the tension is −5 cm; and (d) post-thaw period; the tension is −10 cm.
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Figure 7. Saturated hydraulic conductivity of frozen and unfrozen soil. (a) 0–10 cm soil layer; (b) 10–20 cm soil layer; (c) 20–30 cm soil layer; and (d) 30–40 cm soil layer. Different letters represent the variability of soil at different depths under the same treatment conditions (p < 0.05).
Figure 7. Saturated hydraulic conductivity of frozen and unfrozen soil. (a) 0–10 cm soil layer; (b) 10–20 cm soil layer; (c) 20–30 cm soil layer; and (d) 30–40 cm soil layer. Different letters represent the variability of soil at different depths under the same treatment conditions (p < 0.05).
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Table 1. Characteristics of soil parameters.
Table 1. Characteristics of soil parameters.
TreatmentSoil Mechanical CompositionDry Bulk
Density/g·cm−3		Saturated Water
Content/%		Natural Water
Content/%		Field Capacity/%
<0.005
mm		0.005–0.2
mm		>0.02
mm
CK36.76 ± 0.58 a35.12 ± 0.51 b28.12 ± 0.32 b1.49 ± 0.02 a42.36 ± 0.52 c22.16 ± 0.24 c30.79 ± 0.34 c
SB35.92 ± 0.42 ab36.77 ± 0.34 b27.31 ± 0.28 c1.41 ± 0.03 b45.12 ± 0.41 b23.17 ± 0.28 b31.15 ± 0.36 c
BC30.36 ± 0.37 b40.37 ± 0.44 a29.27 ± 0.46 a1.43 ± 0.01 b43.79 ± 0.35 c24.73 ± 0.21 b33.12 ± 0.25 b
SB + BC28.34 ± 0.41 c41.98 ± 0.61 a29.68 ± 0.32 a1.36 ± 0.02 c47.14 ± 0.33 a25.35 ± 0.29 a35.61 ± 0.41 a
Note: All data in this table are expressed as mean ± standard deviation, and a, ab, b, and c indicate that the parameters are significantly different under the same treatment (p < 0.05).
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Zhou, Z.; Liu, S.; Zhu, B.; Wang, R.; Liu, C.; Hou, R. The Effect of the Construction of a Tillage Layer on the Infiltration of Snowmelt Water into Freeze–Thaw Soil in Cold Regions. Water 2024, 16, 3224. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223224

AMA Style

Zhou Z, Liu S, Zhu B, Wang R, Liu C, Hou R. The Effect of the Construction of a Tillage Layer on the Infiltration of Snowmelt Water into Freeze–Thaw Soil in Cold Regions. Water. 2024; 16(22):3224. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223224

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhou, Ziqiao, Sisi Liu, Bingyu Zhu, Rui Wang, Chao Liu, and Renjie Hou. 2024. "The Effect of the Construction of a Tillage Layer on the Infiltration of Snowmelt Water into Freeze–Thaw Soil in Cold Regions" Water 16, no. 22: 3224. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223224

APA Style

Zhou, Z., Liu, S., Zhu, B., Wang, R., Liu, C., & Hou, R. (2024). The Effect of the Construction of a Tillage Layer on the Infiltration of Snowmelt Water into Freeze–Thaw Soil in Cold Regions. Water, 16(22), 3224. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223224

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