Laws | June 2022 - Browse Articles

19 pages, 341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Smart Justice in Italy: Cases of Apps Created by Lawyers for Lawyers and Beyond

by Giampiero Lupo and Davide Carnevali

Laws 2022, 11(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030051 - 19 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2895

The smart city literature states that three levels of institutional layers (regulatory, normative, and cognitive) and four typologies of actors (government, universities, citizens, and the private sector) support private initiative for developing smart technologies. Focusing on the emergent phenomenon of smart apps ideated [...] Read more.

The smart city literature states that three levels of institutional layers (regulatory, normative, and cognitive) and four typologies of actors (government, universities, citizens, and the private sector) support private initiative for developing smart technologies. Focusing on the emergent phenomenon of smart apps ideated by lawyers’ private initiatives, this paper acknowledges that other factors, including the ubiquity of mobile technologies and the absence of effective public services provided by public institutions, contribute to the institutional and organizational humus necessary for the creation of intelligent technological proposals. In the light of the organizational theory framework, and based on the analysis of the literature on smart cities and e-justice and on the empirical investigation of two Italian lawyers’ apps (Collega and Anthea), this paper identifies the institutional, organizational, and technological conditions under which smart technologies are being developed in high-regulated public institutions’ contexts as justice systems. The findings of the study described in this paper help integrate the contribution of the literature on the topic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Laws — Feature Papers)

12 pages, 242 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Populism and the Threat to International Law

by Kristian Humble

Laws 2022, 11(3), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030050 - 9 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4642

Abstract

The rise of populism represents a threat to constitutionalism, democracy, and the rule of law. Populist governments are a threat to the international legal order and to the authority of international legal agreements. This article will, therefore, look at the serious threat to [...] Read more.

The rise of populism represents a threat to constitutionalism, democracy, and the rule of law. Populist governments are a threat to the international legal order and to the authority of international legal agreements. This article will, therefore, look at the serious threat to international law that is presented by populism. This fundamental threat to international institutions, multilateralism, and the funding received by NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) is based on the promotion by populist governments that the edicts of international law are merely a matter of coordination and interventionism. Populists and populist governments traditionally promote this ideal through their policies, which are anti-pluralist and are focused on a limited set of agenda-setting goals that are in opposition to the fundamental international goal-setting of protecting human rights, along with the collective agreements between nations for the enhancement of the international community. This article will ascertain the very real threat that is posed by the continued rise of populism and, in particular, a populist government. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Human Rights Issues)

13 pages, 236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Peaceful Settlement of Interstate Online Disputes

by Joanna Kulesza

Laws 2022, 11(3), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030049 - 8 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4251

Abstract

This paper covers the existing international law toolbox on peaceful settlement of disputes and its application to online conflicts. It reiterates the existing measures of diplomatic and judicial measures to address differing positions of states and non-state actors as well as their applicability [...] Read more.

This paper covers the existing international law toolbox on peaceful settlement of disputes and its application to online conflicts. It reiterates the existing measures of diplomatic and judicial measures to address differing positions of states and non-state actors as well as their applicability for the unique online environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue International Law as a Driver of Internet Governance)

18 pages, 6480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vermont Global Warming Solutions Act: The Costs of Inaction from Land Conversions

by Grayson L. Younts, Elena A. Mikhailova, Lili Lin, Zhenbang Hao, Hamdi A. Zurqani, Christopher J. Post, Mark A. Schlautman and George B. Shepherd

Laws 2022, 11(3), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030048 - 7 Jun 2022

Viewed by 3744

Abstract

The Vermont (VT) Global Warming Solutions Act (GWSA, 2020) sets greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets at 26% below 2005 by 2025, 40% below 1990 by 2030 and 80% below 1990 by 2050 for energy-related emissions only. Vermont’s omission of GHG emissions from [...] Read more.

The Vermont (VT) Global Warming Solutions Act (GWSA, 2020) sets greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction targets at 26% below 2005 by 2025, 40% below 1990 by 2030 and 80% below 1990 by 2050 for energy-related emissions only. Vermont’s omission of GHG emissions from land conversions could result in significant costs of inaction (COI), which could hinder the state’s mitigation and adaptation plans and result in climate crisis-related risks (e.g., credit downgrade). Science-based spatio-temporal data of GHG emissions from soils because of land conversions can be integrated into the conceptual framework of “action” versus “inaction” to prevent GHG emissions. The application of soil information data and remote sensing analysis can identify the GHG emissions from land conversions, which can be expressed as “realized” social costs of “inaction”. This study demonstrates the rapid assessment of the value of regulating ecosystems services (ES) from soil organic carbon (SOC), soil inorganic carbon (SIC), and total soil carbon (TSC) stocks, based on the concept of the avoided social cost of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions for VT by soil order and county using remote sensing and information from the State Soil Geographic (STATSGO) and Soil Survey Geographic Database (SSURGO) databases. Classified land cover data for 2001 and 2016 were downloaded from the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium (MRLC) website. These results provide accurate and quantitative spatio-temporal information about likely GHG emissions, which can be linked to VT’s climate action plan. A failure to considerably reduce emissions from land conversions would increase climate change costs and potential legal consequences for VT and beyond its borders. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technology and Economics Law in Energy Markets and Environmental Problems)

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15 pages, 222 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changing Climate; Changing Life—Climate Change and Indigenous Intangible Cultural Heritage

by Noelle Higgins

Laws 2022, 11(3), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030047 - 2 Jun 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5247

Abstract

Climate change has already had a significant impact on both tangible and intangible cultural heritage globally. Climate change-induced impacts on tangible cultural heritage include historic buildings being damaged by increasing sea levels, and harm caused to coral reefs as a result of increased [...] Read more.

Climate change has already had a significant impact on both tangible and intangible cultural heritage globally. Climate change-induced impacts on tangible cultural heritage include historic buildings being damaged by increasing sea levels, and harm caused to coral reefs as a result of increased water temperatures to give just two examples. In the sphere of intangible cultural heritage, climate change can lead communities to abandon their environment and related customs and practices, influencing how they live, eat, work, socialize and worship. Given the spiritual connection between Indigenous Peoples and their land and nature they are disproportionately affected by climate change. This loss is inter-generational, as Indigenous practices and customs disappear when communities are forced to leave their traditional homes and lifestyles. This article seeks to assess how the international legal framework can potentially address the impact of climate change on Indigenous intangible heritage. It also review recent efforts by UNESCO to address climate change and its impacts on cultural heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Promoting and Protecting the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: Challenges and Opportunities)

13 pages, 298 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Follow-Up and Review Mechanisms of the Global Compacts: What Room Is There for Human Mobility in the Context of Disasters and Climate Change?

by Aylin Yildiz

Laws 2022, 11(3), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030046 - 2 Jun 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3839

Abstract

Human mobility in the context of disasters and climate change (HMDCC) is a complex problem, which is planetary in scope and intergenerational in its impact. From the mid-seventeenth century’s little ice age to the rising sea levels due to climate change, people have [...] Read more.

Human mobility in the context of disasters and climate change (HMDCC) is a complex problem, which is planetary in scope and intergenerational in its impact. From the mid-seventeenth century’s little ice age to the rising sea levels due to climate change, people have been driven to move by environmental factors for a long time. Yet, an international treaty regime that addresses the protection needs of persons mobile due to environmental factors has never been created. Against this backdrop, the Global Compacts were negotiated to reflect a “sophisticated” understanding of HMDCC, and their adoption enables cooperation on a wide range of policies and laws to this effect. Examining the implementation of the Global Compacts with respect to the commitments relating to HMDCC, this article finds that States and non-State actors have cooperated to address data gaps and to incorporate mobility considerations into national frameworks on climate change and disaster management. However, States must implement all dimensions of their commitments relating to HMDCC, especially with regards to the facilitation of migration as an adaptation strategy to disasters and climate change, in order to build a comprehensive approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rule of Law and Human Mobility in the Age of the Global Compacts)

19 pages, 338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Juridification of ‘Vulnerability’ through EU Asylum Law: The Quest for Bridging the Gap between the Law and Asylum Applicants’ Experiences

by Luc Leboeuf

Laws 2022, 11(3), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030045 - 31 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5076

Abstract

‘Vulnerability’ is flooding EU asylum law. Based on the analysis of the ECtHR’s case-law in deportation cases, the EU Directives’ provisions towards ‘vulnerable’ asylum applicants, and their implementation in the domestic legislations and practices of two EU member states that were studied as [...] Read more.

‘Vulnerability’ is flooding EU asylum law. Based on the analysis of the ECtHR’s case-law in deportation cases, the EU Directives’ provisions towards ‘vulnerable’ asylum applicants, and their implementation in the domestic legislations and practices of two EU member states that were studied as part of the VULNER project (Belgium and Italy), this contribution establishes a typology of the various legal and bureaucratic functions that ‘vulnerability’ has received in the EU. It also reflects on the ‘juridification’ trend at play, the implementation challenges that have emerged as a result, and how they are currently being addressed in the EU. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vulnerability and the Legal Protection of Migrants: A Critical Look at the Canadian Context)

17 pages, 306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Unsafe from Any Angle: Vulnerability-Generation on the US–Canada Border

by Edit Frenyo

Laws 2022, 11(3), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030044 - 27 May 2022

Viewed by 3559

Abstract

This article provides a review of the functioning and legality of the Safe Third Country Agreement between Canada and the United States, placing it in the broader context of systemic factors that generate and exacerbate the vulnerability of protection seekers. It offers a [...] Read more.

This article provides a review of the functioning and legality of the Safe Third Country Agreement between Canada and the United States, placing it in the broader context of systemic factors that generate and exacerbate the vulnerability of protection seekers. It offers a critical evaluation of what the legal challenges against the STCA reveal about the promises and limitations of safe-country-related litigation and the future of the Agreement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vulnerability and the Legal Protection of Migrants: A Critical Look at the Canadian Context)

21 pages, 1477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Practicable Operationalisation of Meaningful Human Control

by Jonathan Kwik

Laws 2022, 11(3), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030043 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4579

Abstract

Meaningful Human Control (MHC) has been a consistent key term in legal debates concerning autonomous weapon systems (AWS), but its usefulness as a policy or lawmaking tool is limited due to a lack of clarity on what the concept encompasses. This study engaged [...] Read more.

Meaningful Human Control (MHC) has been a consistent key term in legal debates concerning autonomous weapon systems (AWS), but its usefulness as a policy or lawmaking tool is limited due to a lack of clarity on what the concept encompasses. This study engaged in a thorough literature study of official statements, policy papers and academic papers published between 2013–2021 to determine features common to these proposals and synthesise a workable framework of MHC. The framework identifies five core elements—awareness, weaponeering, context control, prediction and accountability—and many interlocking mechanisms which link these elements together in a causal and chronological manner corresponding to the military targeting process. Subsequently, a detailed commentary and discussion is provided on the individual differences between sources, how specific elements can be implemented in practice by military commanders, and particularly controversial points are highlighted which require specific consideration by commentators and policymakers. The framework identifies concrete and practicable ways commanders can exercise control over AWS and serves as a solid foundation for further legal analysis of commanders’ duties when employing AWS, for future policy discussions, and as a problem-solving tool to resolve important legal questions such as the ubiquitous ‘accountability gap’ conundrum. Full article

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17 pages, 673 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Conceptual Model of Role Stress and Job Burnout in Judges: The Moderating Role of Career Calling

by Sandra Patrícia Marques Pereira, Pedro Miguel Alves Ribeiro Correia, Patrícia Jardim Da Palma, Liliana Pitacho and Fabrício Castagna Lunardi

Laws 2022, 11(3), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030042 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5199

Abstract

Judges are the central actors in the organization and functioning of the judicial system. Concerns about work efficiency, driven by the European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice, led countries to adopt a set of reforms in line with private sector ideals applied [...] Read more.

Judges are the central actors in the organization and functioning of the judicial system. Concerns about work efficiency, driven by the European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice, led countries to adopt a set of reforms in line with private sector ideals applied to the public field to better manage their financial and human resources. In the last decades, the Portuguese judicial system has undergone a reform based on New Public Management principles by adopting the new Law on the Organization of the Judiciary System (LOSJ), significantly altering judges’ duties, who beyond their traditional role of applying the law, perform the additional role of court-of-law judge-manager. The objective of this study is to explore the influence of role conflict and role ambiguity in occupational burnout among judges and to analyze the influence of calling orientation as a moderating variable, so as to present a conceptual model of role-stress management among the judiciary. Theoretically, this work contributes to the literature on role-stress management through its introduction of calling moderation, as well as to the literature on the positive influence of calling on burnout. In terms of its practical implications, the work contributes to a reconsideration of the current organizational structure of judicial work. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of Laws — Feature Papers)

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16 pages, 7847 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Delaware’s Climate Action Plan: Omission of Source Attribution from Land Conversion Emissions

by Elena A. Mikhailova, Lili Lin, Zhenbang Hao, Hamdi A. Zurqani, Christopher J. Post, Mark A. Schlautman, Gregory C. Post and George B. Shepherd

Laws 2022, 11(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030041 - 9 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5516

Abstract

Delaware’s (DE) Climate Action Plan lays out a pathway to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by at least 26% by 2025 but does not consider soil-based GHG emissions from land conversions. Consequently, DE’s climate action plan fails to account for the contribution of [...] Read more.

Delaware’s (DE) Climate Action Plan lays out a pathway to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by at least 26% by 2025 but does not consider soil-based GHG emissions from land conversions. Consequently, DE’s climate action plan fails to account for the contribution of emissions from ongoing land development economic activity to climate change. Source attribution (SA) is a special field within the science of climate change attribution, which can generate “documentary evidence” (e.g., GHG emissions inventory, etc.). The combination of remote sensing and soil information data analysis can identify the source attribution of GHG emissions from land conversions for DE. Traditional attribution science starts with climate impacts, which are then linked to source attribution of GHG emissions. The most urgent need is not only to detect climate change impacts, but also to detect and attribute sources of climate change impacts. This study used a different approach that quantified past soil GHG emissions which are then available to support impact attribution. Study results provide accurate and quantitative spatio-temporal source attribution for likely GHG emissions, which can be included in the DE’s climate action plan. Including the impact of land conversion on GHG emissions is critical to mitigating climate impacts, because without a more complete source attribution it is not possible to meet overall emission reduction goals. Furthermore, the increased climate change impacts from land conversions are in a feedback loop where climate change can increase the rates of GHG emissions as part of these conversions. This study provides a spatially explicit methodology that could be applied to attribute past, future, or potential GHG emission impacts from land conversions that can be included in DE’s GHGs inventory and climate impact assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technology and Economics Law in Energy Markets and Environmental Problems)

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21 pages, 351 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Humanitarian and Compassionate Applications: A Critical Look at Canadian Decision-Makers’ Assessment of Claims from “Vulnerable” Applicants

by Anthony Delisle and Delphine Nakache

Laws 2022, 11(3), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030040 - 29 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 10286

Abstract

For many people who have made Canada their home but have uncertain legal status and are ineligible to apply for permanent residence through other channels, the Humanitarian and Compassionate (H&C) application is the only available pathway to permanent residence and stability in Canada. [...] Read more.

For many people who have made Canada their home but have uncertain legal status and are ineligible to apply for permanent residence through other channels, the Humanitarian and Compassionate (H&C) application is the only available pathway to permanent residence and stability in Canada. Applications for permanent residence on H&C grounds have become a key component of Canada’s immigration system and yet this pathway remains under-researched. Drawing upon extensive desk research and the preliminary analysis of interview data, this article addresses this gap in the scholarship by offering a critical analysis of the H&C program. In it, we begin by discussing the specific challenges that this highly discretionary decision-making process poses for vulnerable applicants and suggest areas for improvement. We then focus on H&C applications and decisions that directly impact children and explain why a change in the Canadian application of the best interests of the child principle is required. Finally, we consider two recent trends in H&C cases: the sharp increase in the number of applications and the increasingly high rates of refusal. Throughout this analysis, we highlight the negative repercussions the current system has on the most vulnerable categories of migrants and the need to better understand these phenomena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vulnerability and the Legal Protection of Migrants: A Critical Look at the Canadian Context)

22 pages, 365 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Directing the Legal Radar at Forced Labour—Under Special Consideration of Male Victims in Norway

by Carola Lingaas

Laws 2022, 11(3), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030039 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3440

Abstract

Human trafficking in the form of labour exploitation appears to have gone under the legal radar domestically, regionally, and internationally, with ensuing grave consequences for the victims concerned. This paper critically discusses the current legal developments and interpretations of global and regional legal [...] Read more.

Human trafficking in the form of labour exploitation appears to have gone under the legal radar domestically, regionally, and internationally, with ensuing grave consequences for the victims concerned. This paper critically discusses the current legal developments and interpretations of global and regional legal sources on forced labour and the challenges they face. A legal analysis is supplemented by information obtained through interviews with 14 presumed male victims of forced labour, who recently escaped a coercive work situation and were living in a safe house in Oslo (Norway). The paper will demonstrate the shortcomings of the law and its application, using the case of Norway and the affected men as an example. It examines the case law of the European Court of Human Rights using a vulnerability approach and argues that the inaction in preventing and prosecuting crimes committed towards people who are exploited for forced labour is a violation of their human rights and may be interpreted as granting impunity to their perpetrators. The situation for male victims of forced labour is particularly severe. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Migrants and Human Rights Protections)

12 pages, 230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Border Procedures in the European Union: How the Pact Ignored the Compacts

by Galina Cornelisse and Marcelle Reneman

Laws 2022, 11(3), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030038 - 22 Apr 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4799

Abstract

This article analyses the (potential) role of the Global Compact for Migration and the Global Compact for Refugees in the development of EU law concerning asylum seekers who arrive at the external borders of the European Union (EU). Under the current rules, many [...] Read more.

This article analyses the (potential) role of the Global Compact for Migration and the Global Compact for Refugees in the development of EU law concerning asylum seekers who arrive at the external borders of the European Union (EU). Under the current rules, many asylum seekers are refused entry to the territory of the EU and detained while their asylum claim is examined in a border procedure. Some EU Member States even push back asylum seekers without a proper assessment of their needs for international protection. Despite widespread violations of the fundamental rights of asylum seekers at the external borders of the EU, the New Pact on Migration and Asylum presents the new integrated border procedure as an important instrument to ‘deal with mixed flows’ and make the Common European Asylum System (CEAS) work. However, the EU legislator has not substantiated the claim that border procedures will contribute to achieving the aims of the CEAS, such as the creation of a uniform, fair and efficient asylum procedure and prevention of abuse. Neither does the Pact provide a solution for pushbacks and systematic use of detention, nor does it guarantee the quality of the asylum procedure, including the identification of persons with special needs. The Pact therefore not only fails to comply with the EU’s own Better Regulation guidelines and protect the fundamental rights of asylum seekers, but it also ignores the standards of the Global Compacts. What role can the Global Compacts still play in the ongoing negotiations over the Pact? Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rule of Law and Human Mobility in the Age of the Global Compacts)

12 pages, 273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Protecting Asylum Seekers and Migrants in the Context of the Rule of Law Crisis in EU Member States: The Recent Approach of the Court of Justice of the EU through the Lens of the Global Compacts on Refugees and Migration

by Alessandra Favi

Laws 2022, 11(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030037 - 21 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3845

Abstract

In recent times, the CJEU has started to develop its judicial response to the “rule of law crisis” in some Member States. On the one hand, this new trend has emerged also as a reaction to some national reforms concerning asylum and migration [...] Read more.

In recent times, the CJEU has started to develop its judicial response to the “rule of law crisis” in some Member States. On the one hand, this new trend has emerged also as a reaction to some national reforms concerning asylum and migration law. On the other hand, the CJEU in protecting the EU founding values has deployed its “traditional” competences attributed to it by the EU Treaties, namely the mechanisms of the preliminary ruling procedure and the infringement procedure. Against this background, this contribution aims at investigating this new CJEU’s jurisprudence through the lens of the Global Compacts on Refugees and Migration. This will lead us to reflect on how the CJEU’s caselaw could be seen as an effective tool to enhance the rule of law and protect third-country nationals, at least within the EU, and indirectly contributes to increasing compliance with some of the commitments laid down in the Global Compacts, regardless of the position taken by some recalcitrant EU Member States with respect to these documents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rule of Law and Human Mobility in the Age of the Global Compacts)

20 pages, 310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Band-Aid on a Bullet Wound—Canada’s Open Work Permit for Vulnerable Workers Policy

by Eugénie Depatie-Pelletier, Hannah Deegan and Katherine Berze

Laws 2022, 11(3), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/laws11030036 - 20 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6049

Abstract

In June 2019, the Government of Canada implemented the Open work permit for vulnerable workers (OWP-V) policy, authorizing immigration officers to issue open work permits to migrant workers on employer-specific work permits if they demonstrate reasonable grounds to believe that they are experiencing [...] Read more.

In June 2019, the Government of Canada implemented the Open work permit for vulnerable workers (OWP-V) policy, authorizing immigration officers to issue open work permits to migrant workers on employer-specific work permits if they demonstrate reasonable grounds to believe that they are experiencing abuse or are at risk of abuse in their workplace. Drawing on research conducted by a community organization on the impact of the policy, this article examines the policy’s potential to remedy the problematic effects of the employer-specific work permit and whether it has been implemented efficiently. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with organizations that provide direct legal and social support to migrant workers in Canada. Additionally, two datasets regarding the role of the OWP-V policy in IRCC’s employer compliance regime were analyzed. The research concludes that the OWP-V policy cannot be expected to counteract the high risk of abuse imposed on workers through the employer-specific work permit. Numerous barriers were identified that make it difficult for migrant workers to apply for the permit. The small number of OWP-V permits issued in proportion to the number of employers authorized to hire migrant workers makes it unlikely that the policy will significantly impact employers’ propensity to comply with the program conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vulnerability and the Legal Protection of Migrants: A Critical Look at the Canadian Context)

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Laws, Volume 11, Issue 3 (June 2022) – 16 articles

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