Next Article in Journal
Comparing Reports of Child Sexual and Physical Abuse Using Child Welfare Agency Data in Two Jurisdictions with Different Mandatory Reporting Laws
Previous Article in Journal
The Impact of Term Fake News on the Scientific Community. Scientific Performance and Mapping in Web of Science
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Social Sciences
Volume 9
Issue 5
10.3390/socsci9050074
socsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

South Korean Consumers’ Attitudes toward Small Business Owners Participating in the 2019 Anti-Japan Boycott

by
Eugene Song
Department of Consumer Science, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 28644, Korea
Soc. Sci. 2020, 9(5), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9050074
Submission received: 31 March 2020 / Revised: 28 April 2020 / Accepted: 7 May 2020 / Published: 9 May 2020
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
This study investigated consumer attitudes and the motivation of small business owners who participated in the 2019 anti-Japan boycott in South Korea (hereafter, Korea). The main areas of inquiry involved self-expression, the realization of justice, and consumer attitudes as elements of patriotic consumption. A seven-day survey was conducted among 500 adult consumers aged 18 years and older in Korea. The retrieved data were subjected to frequency analyses, reliability analyses, factor analyses, paired t-tests, and regressions. Declining Japanese product sales indicated high levels of a consumer boycott. The analyses demonstrated that consumers held positive attitudes toward small business owners who shared their boycotting beliefs and goals. Second, self-expression and the realization of justice motivation were relatively high, as were attitudes toward the participation message and small business owners who were participating in the boycott. Korean consumers had relatively high intentions to visit the stores of small business owners who were participating in the boycott. Lastly, self-expression motivations, motivations to realize justice, consumer attitudes toward the boycott participation messages of small business owners, and consumer attitudes toward the small business owners themselves had statistically significant positive effects. Small business owners holding general consumer beliefs about boycott participation should actively spread their support messages, and this would provide an excellent opportunity to create positive long-term awareness. This study provided a unique insight into Korean consumer behaviors when patriotism was considered. The findings have significant implications for small business owners looking to sustain themselves during product boycotts.

1. Introduction

Historical issues can often lead to serious socioeconomic problems. For example, a South Korean boycott of Japanese products (i.e., No Japan, Boycott Japan) began on 1 July 2019, due to historical issues between South Korea and Japan. These events were part of a movement initiated by Korean consumers to avoid purchasing or consuming products and services from Japan and certain Japanese affiliates based on past grievances. The most recent boycotts were sparked by Tokyo’s restrictions on exports of semiconductor materials and display panels that are vital to the South Korean technology industry. This act was widely perceived as a retaliatory move related to a 2018 South Korean Supreme Court ruling that ordered Japanese companies to pay compensation for their use of forced labor during the Japanese occupation of the Korean Peninsula between 1910 and 1945.
Suzuki (2019) demonstrated that campaigns calling for Japanese product boycotts initiate in South Korea whenever relations between the two countries become problematic. While these are typically short-lived, the newest boycotts are different. Consumer anger toward Japan first ignited during the summer of 2019 and continues to smolder. This is because many young people have kept up the momentum through social media. The South Korean boycotts of Japanese products have now gained substantial social interest through global media coverage, including reports from the BBC (2019), The Guardian (McCurry 2019), and PRI (Kasulis 2019).
The current boycott is relatively broader and more organizational compared to the boycotts that occurred in the past. In particular, small business owners are directly participating in the boycott by openly displaying that they are participating in it or setting unreasonable prices on products related to the boycott. The small business owners who are participating in the boycott are receiving favorable reactions from the Korean consumers. After the Korea Federation of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (KSME), consisting of 27 organizations including Korea Association of Distributors Member (KADM), openly stated that it will participate in the boycott on 5 July 2019, there was a movement from marketplaces all over the country to eliminate products related to the boycott (Lee 2019; Oh 2019). According to a study by Song (2020), Korean customers have encouraged small business owners to voluntarily participate in the boycott and perceive them as having mutual goals and being in the same boat.
The designer, Yong Gil Kim, created a logo with the words “NO, BOYCOTT JAPAN” which was distributed for free under the condition that all purposes were nonprofit (Kang 2019). A total of 680 non-governmental organizations are now participating in the boycott, including the Korean Confederation of Trade Unions, the Korean Alliance of Progressive Movements, and YMCA Korea (Kim 2019a). In this context, the “NO, BOYCOTT JAPAN” logo has been used as a participation message by many small business owners and protestors. Further, a smartphone application titled “No JAPAN,” developed by an independent app developer (Sansam) in favor of the boycott, was launched on 15 July 2019, to show support. This application contained extensive product lists that many Korean consumers now use to distinguish between Japanese products and alternatives from other nations.
The 2019 Consumer Behavior Survey for Food, which was conducted by the Korea Rural Economic Institute (2019), indicated that 81.5% of consumers agreed with the idea of boycotting Japanese products, while 70% had foregone the purchase of these products altogether. Indeed, among the order of countries that export goods to Korea, Japan fell from first to 28th (Kim 2019b). Further, trade statistics from the Japan Ministry of Finance (2019) illustrate that Japanese exports to Korea in October 2019 only amounted to 381.8 billion JPY (4.12 trillion KRW), which was a 23.1% drop from the same period in the previous year. The Japan National Tourism Organization (2020) also reported a 65.5% decrease in the number of Korean visitors to Japan (i.e., to 197,300) in October 2019, and Japanese automakers reported that sales to Korea for August 2019 fell 57% from the previous year (McCurry 2019). Even more dramatically, imports of Japanese beer to Korea had dropped by 99.9% from the previous year in September, or to around USD$6000 (~7 million KRW; Kyodo News Agency 2019), before falling to zero the following month (Pham 2019).
The current boycotts are relatively broader and more organization-based than those in the past. Notably, small business owners are now also directly participating by openly displaying their support of the boycotts or placing unreasonable prices on boycotted products. Such efforts are gaining favorable reactions from Korean consumers. Consisting of 27 organizations (including the Korean Association of Small and Medium-Sized Distributors), the Korea Federation of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (KSME) has also openly stated its intention to participate in the boycotts; indeed there have been movements from marketplaces all over the country to eliminate boycotted products (Lee 2019). Yomiuri Shimbun (2019) said these boycotts are also different from those in the past because they will likely continue over the long term.
As mentioned earlier, South Korean boycotts of Japanese products are rooted in historical issues. In turn, this has stimulated consumer patriotism, which greatly influences purchasing decisions (Han 1988; Park and Jang 2012). Many previous studies have analyzed the effects of variables such as motivation, benefit, cost, consumer role, efficacy, belief, and a variety of sociodemographic characteristics on the motivation of consumers to boycott specific goods (Braunsberger and Buckler 2011; Friedman 1999; John and Klein 2003; Klein et al. 2004; Sen et al. 2001). However, few studies have specifically investigated consumer attitudes toward small business owners who participate in boycotts and consumer intentions to visit their stores (Klein et al. 1998; Ma and Kim 2017). This study, therefore, focused on how boycott participation from small business owners affected consumer boycott motivation and intention to visit their businesses. The research involved an investigation of the factors influencing their participation, such as patriotic consumption and consumer motivation. First, Korean consumer participation levels were assessed based on the purchasing levels of products related to the boycott. Second, consumer attitudes toward the participating small business owners and their intention to visit these small businesses were evaluated according to the influences of patriotic consumption and participation motivation.
This study produced important evidence for understanding consumer attitudes when small business owners and consumers (who typically have opposing interests within the market) jointly participate in a consumption movement with common goals. Small business owners and larger enterprises can also use these findings to develop better ways of communicating with consumers.

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. Patriotic Consumption

Patriotic consumption is associated with a preference for domestic products. It also influences whether consumers purchase domestic or imported products (Han 1988; Park and Jang 2012). Han (1988) found that patriotic consumption substantially influenced the decision to purchase domestic products over imported products, and that it often resulted in favorable evaluations about the quality and usefulness of those products. The same study also demonstrated that advertisements focusing on the patriotic emotions of consumers could positively influence their intention to buy domestic products. In addition, Yoo et al. (2014) studied the effects of patriotism on Korean and American consumers and found that Korean consumers exhibited stronger patriotic consumption tendencies. Further, Tsai (2010) found that patriotism was the driving force behind consumer nationalism. In this context, consumers regard the purchase of domestically-made products as an altruistic contribution to their nation.
Messages that appeal to patriotism and national identity may create positive reactions from consumers; consumers may prefer advertisements with patriotic themes and assess more positively those messages with noticeable appeals to national identity (Castelló and Mihelj 2017; Yoo and Lee 2016). Kim (1999) demonstrated that patriotic advertisements could positively influence consumers and promote sales for poorly performing products. Further, Yu and Jung’s (2004) examination of patriotic advertisements in the context of social interaction revealed that such messages could alter attitudes toward brands and increase purchase intentions based on the level of consumer patriotism. Kim (2015) also found that innate consumer beliefs affected their evaluations of and behavior toward advertising messages. Based on these findings, we developed our first hypothesis:
Hypothesis (H1).
Patriotic consumption will positively affect consumer intentions to visit the stores of small business owners who participate in the boycotts.

2.2. Motivation for Boycotting

Perceived egregiousness is one of the reasons consumers participate in boycotts. Specifically, consumers who perceive higher levels of egregiousness have a higher motivation to boycott (Smith and Cooper-Martin 1997); indeed, it provides a reason to act. As Cheon (2019) found, motivation to participate also affects overall boycott participation, and many other previous studies have examined this issue. For instance, Friedman (1999) classified consumer motivation to boycott into instrumental and non-instrumental motivation. While instrumental motivation causes consumer boycotting to force targeted entities to change or cease negative behaviors or decisions, non-instrumental motivation (also called expressive motivation) causes boycotting to express fury or anger toward the target. The latter type provides stronger motivation (Ettenson and Klein 2005). Klein et al. (2004) also divided motivation for boycotts into two categories: Instrumental and emotional motivation. They stated that instrumental motivation encourages consumers to change society by participating in the boycott, and emotional motivation makes consumers who participate in the boycott experience internal rewards by feeling positive about themselves and highly self-confident. Thus, the types of motivation for participating in a boycott from Klein et al. (2004) and the instrumental and emotional motivations defined by Friedman (1999) are closely related. Additionally, Braunsberger and Buckler (2011) conducted a study about the motivation of consumers to participate in the Canadian seafood boycott, where pledgees explicitly expressed their desire for the target to abolish its egregious behavior, their anger about the behavior in question, and their desire for punitive actions. Boycott motivations also include the belief that consumers have the power to impact a boycott target’s bottom line and/or behavior as well as the belief that the boycott will succeed in forcing the target to cease its egregious behavior.
Hoffmann (2013) studied the motivations of consumers who boycott companies. He stated that certain attitudes (e.g., empathizing with or having sympathy for those who are disadvantaged due to unjust behaviors) could also work as motivation to engage in a boycott. His study also stated that consumers’ moral obligation is a mediator that raises boycott intention. In addition, Cheon (2019) regarded boycotts as elements of political consumerism, thereby classifying participation motivation as expression, sympathy, and realizing justice. In other words, sympathetic feelings toward consumers who had been disadvantaged by a boycott also play an important role in the motivation to participate in a boycott, and this is a non-instrumental motivation.
On the other hand, consumers tend to engage in positive behavior when they have a mutual goal with a specific group of people and thus feel united (Swann et al. 2009; Katz and Kahn 1978). They also prefer and choose conditions or situations with which they can easily fit or express their preference (Snyder et al. 1997; Palmgreen et al. 2001). Song and Lee (2017) found that consumers tend to associate themselves with businesses with which they feel a strong connection, and Lee et al. (2015) found that such a tendency affects the motivation of consumers to behave positively. Many small business owners participated in the current boycott in several ways, indicating that consumers feel strong connections or are united with them.
Subsequently, we developed our second hypothesis as follows:
Hypothesis (H2a).
The consumer instrumental motivation (realizing justice) to boycott will positively affect their intentions to visit the stores of small business owners who also boycott.
Hypothesis (H2b).
The consumer non-instrumental motivation (self-expression and sympathy) to boycott will positively affect their intentions to visit the stores of small business owners who are also participating in the boycott.

2.3. Attitudes toward the Participation Message

Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined attitude as the acquired predisposition to have positive or negative reactions toward a particular object consistently. Further, the three factors of awareness, attitude, and behavior are organized into a linear hierarchy, meaning that consumers evaluate product characteristics to develop knowledge and beliefs, and thus, develop attitudes. Consumers then decide whether to purchase products based on these attitudes (Biel and Bridgewater 1990; Larimer and Neighbors 2003; MacKenzie and Lutz 1989; MacKenzie et al. 1986).
Boycotts are closely related to consumer ethics (Shim et al. 2018; Smith 2003, 2008). Klein and Dawar (2004) found that a company’s social responsibilities could positively affect how it is evaluated by consumers who are sensitive to the social approach. Further, Smith et al. (2010) found that consumers infer whether a company has adhered to its social responsibilities based on limited information, which nevertheless becomes important evidence for how they evaluate it. Indeed, there are numerous cases in which corporate social responsibility has affected how consumers view company reliability, and this also influences their behavior (Becker-Olson et al. 2006). As such, boycotts are significantly related to corporate social responsibility. Messages about a boycott thus affect the level of consumer friendliness toward a given company (Makaren and Jae 2016). In this study’s context, small business owners who relay their intention to boycott may help consumers form attitudes toward the owners themselves, thus leading consumers to visit their stores. From this, we developed our third and fourth hypotheses:
Hypothesis (H3).
Small business owners who participate in the boycott will positively affect consumer intentions to visit their businesses.
Hypothesis (H4).
Consumer attitudes toward boycott participation messages from small business owners will positively affect their intentions to visit the businesses.

3. Methods

3.1. Research Methods

To test the hypotheses, a questionnaire was developed and distributed over seven days (27 November to 3 December 2019) by the online questionnaire research company Macromill Embrain. The survey was offered online for participant convenience, and the participants were alerted about the questionnaire through an e-mail and gave informed consent before participation. Only responses from those who agreed to participate were analyzed. In addition, as this survey did not gather personal and sensitive information, there was no need to conduct an ethical review.

3.2. Participants

A total of 500 participants were selected using the proportional allocation sampling method, which was based on population, gender, age, and area of residence. Of these, 51.6% were male, and 48.4% were female. While 22.2% were in their 20s, 22.8% were in their 30s, 26.8% were in their 40s, and 28.2% were in their 50s or above. In terms of occupation, 63.0% were full-time employees, 5.0% were part-time employees, 5.8% were self-employed, 9.4% were housewives, 5.6% were students, and 11.2% were unemployed or other. The average monthly household income was approximately USD$4000 (±USD$3000).

3.3. Analysis

This study conducted a reliability analysis, factor analysis, frequency analysis, mean analysis, paired t-test, and regression analysis. The factor and reliability analyses were conducted to verify the scale’s reliability and validity, while the others were conducted to analyze the consumer responses. The general participant characteristics were analyzed using descriptive statistics while purchasing behaviors both before and during the boycott were analyzed through a paired t-test. Mean and standard deviations were then analyzed to confirm patriotic consumption levels, boycott participation motivations, consumer attitudes, and intentions to visit stores participating in the boycott. Means were calculated by dividing the sum of each measured variable by the number of measured variables. The factors affecting the intention of Korean consumers to visit the stores of small business owners who were participating in the boycott were analyzed through a multiple regression. This included several independent variables, covering patriotic consumption levels, motivations (self-expression, sympathy, and realizing justice), and consumer attitudes (attitudes towards participation messages and small business owners), while the intention to visit the stores of small business owners who were participating in the boycott was set as the dependent variable. All analyses were conducted using SPSS 21.0 software (IBM SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

3.4. Scale Development

A scale was developed to include questions related to boycott participation (10 items), patriotic consumption (eight items), boycott participation motivation (14 items), consumer attitudes (12 items), and the intention to visit stores participating in the boycott (two items) (Table 1). These were compiled following previous studies, as illustrated in Table 2. Aside from the sociodemographic characteristics, all items were measured on a five-point scale (1 = “never buy” or “strongly disagree,” while 5 = “must buy” or “strongly agree”).
A factor analysis identified whether the factors of motivations for participating in the boycott (expression, sympathy, and realizing justice) can be statistically differentiated. A principle components analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation of the motivation variables found three factors, as we predicted. The results of analyzing Table 2 showed identical results to the to those that are suggested by this study.

3.5. Boycott Participation

Boycott participation levels were measured by comparing the purchasing levels of the four main boycotted product types (i.e., liquor, clothing, cosmetics, and stationary) and other products. The products were selected based on the list of major products related to the boycott in Korea (Cho 2019; Kyodo News Agency 2019; McCurry 2019; Lee 2019; Pham 2019; Yomiuri Shimbun 2019) and the items were rated on a five-point scale (1 = “never buy” while 5 = “must buy”).

3.6. Consumer Patriotism

Patriotic consumption was measured based on a modified version of the consumer ethnocentrism tendencies scale (CETSCALE), which was developed by Shimp and Sharma (1987) and reconstructed by both Klein and Ettenson (1999) and Park and Jang (2012). They measured consumer patriotism to quantify beliefs of consumers in purchasing and selling domestic and imported products, such as the duty of citizens to purchase domestic products, the awareness of socioeconomic effects of imported products (e.g., effects on unemployment), or policies about high taxes on imported products. This study edited the scale to reflect the boycotts in Korea, and subsequently, it included eight items: “Korean people should buy Korean products rather than imported products,” “Korean people should not purchase imported products,” “Only products that cannot be purchased in the Korean market should be imported from foreign countries,” “As purchasing imported products increases the unemployment rate of the Korean people, Korean people should not buy imported products,” “Koreans should only purchase Korean products so that foreign companies will not earn money in Korea,” “There should be higher taxes for import companies to block foreign products from entering the Korean market,” “Korean people can only continue working without losing their jobs if we buy Korean products,” and “Korean products are the best for Korean people,” and the items were rated on a five-point scale (1 = “Not at all” while 5 = “Strongly agree”).

3.7. Motivation to Participate in the Boycotts

The scales used in this study were developed based on the types of motivation for participating in the boycott and those used by Friedman (1999), Cheon (2019), Ettenson and Klein (2005), and Hoffmann (2013). After integrating the motivation types, they were classified into instrumental motivation or realizing justice, expressive motivation, and sympathetic motivation (Cheon 2019; Friedman 1999; Klein et al. 2004). The motivation to realize justice was measured according to three items, including “I participate in the boycott of Japanese products because it is an effective method to change the behaviors of the companies in question,” “I participate in the boycott of Japanese products because I believe it will change unjust traditions,” and “I participate in the boycott of Japanese products because it is effective in realizing social justice.” Expressive motivation was measured according to the following four items: “I participate in the boycott because it reflects my normal beliefs,” “I participate in the boycott because it matches my life values,” “I participate in the boycott because it is related to my conscience,” and “I participate in the boycott because the matter in question makes me furious.” Finally, sympathetic motivation was measured according to the following four items: “I participate in the boycott because it is an expression of my sympathy toward others,” “I participate in the boycott because I feel guilty when purchasing products related to the boycott,” “I participate in the boycott because it is a way to show a sense of unity,” and “I participate in the boycott because I am proud of myself for participating in it.”

3.8. Consumer Attitudes

Consumer attitudes were divided into those related to both the participation message and small business owners who were participating in the boycott. First, attitudes toward the participation message were measured using a modified version of the advertisement attitude measurement scale developed by Cha and Kim (2019). This study used the six ratings of “Good,” “Interesting,” “Like,” “Satisfied,” “Valuable,” and “Preferred” to measure participant attitudes toward advertisement messages. Based on the consumer attitude measurement variables used in studies conducted by Pan and Schmitt (1996), Oh and Kwon (2009), and Park et al. (2018), consumer attitudes toward small business owners who were participating in the boycott were measured using five ratings from “Like” to “Satisfied”.

3.9. Intention to Visit Stores

Participant intention to visit the stores of small business owners who were participating in the boycott were measured based on whether they were willing to visit or boycott the store during the boycott in addition to whether they would continue to visit or boycott the store even after the boycott.

4. Results

4.1. Scale Reliability and Validity

The Cronbach’s alphas of all variables were over 0.85, indicating high internal consistency (Table 1). A factor analysis was conducted to identify whether the motivation for participating in the boycott (i.e., expression, sympathy, and realizing justice) could be statistically differentiated. As predicted, there were three factors from the principle components analysis (PCA) with the Varimax rotation of the motivation variables, and Table 2 illustrates all analysis results.

4.2. Findings

The results of the differences in the purchasing levels of products related to the boycott both before and during the boycott are illustrated in Table 3. There were statistically significant differences in the purchasing levels of all items, including liquor; that is, purchasing was lower during the boycott than it was before. This indicates that Korean consumers were actively participating in the boycott.
The means of the subfactors of the variables were first calculated, and then the means of each variable were analyzed (see Table 4). Patriotic consumption of Korean consumers was the lowest relative level. Out of the motivations to participate in the boycott, realizing justice and expression motivations were relatively higher than sympathy motivation. The consumer attitude toward the participation messages, the consumer attitude toward the small business owners who participated in the boycott, the intentions of the consumers to visit the stores of the small business owners who participated in the boycott were all over three points. Consumer attitudes and visiting intention were both relatively high.
The self-expressed motivation to participate in the boycott significantly predicted the intention to visit the stores (b = 0.148, t(500) = 2.886, p < 0.01) (see Table 5). The motivation of realizing justice also significantly predicted the intention to visit the stores (b = 0.147, t(500) = 2.875, p < 0.01). Consumer attitudes toward participation messages (b = 0.181, t(500) = 4.101, p < 0.001) and small business owners (b = 0.472, t(500) = 10.635, p < 0.001) also significantly affected this intention. As such, the motivation to participate in the boycott and consumer attitudes significantly explained consumer intention to visit stores that were participating in the boycott ( R 2 = 0.585 Adjusted R 2 = 0.580, F(500) = 116.053, p < 0.001).

5. Discussion

South Korean boycotts of Japanese products are typically based on historical issues between the two nations. However, the current boycott is relatively broader and more organizational than past boycotts. This study investigated consumer attitudes and motivation regarding Korea’s current anti-Japan boycotts in relation to small business owners who were also participating in the boycotts. This was achieved through focusing on the factors of self-expression motivation, realizing justice, and consumer attitudes as elements of patriotic consumption.
Several important results were found based on these analyses. First, Korean consumers significantly decreased their purchases of Japanese products during the boycotts, including purchases of liquor, clothing, cosmetics, stationery, and other goods, and subsequently, the boycott participation levels were high during the South Korean boycotts of Japanese products. Second, patriotic consumption levels were lower than the median among Korean consumers. Third, self-expression and realizing justice motivation were relatively high. Fourth, attitudes toward the participation message and small business owners who were participating in the boycott were relatively high. Fifth, Korean consumers had relatively high intentions to visit the stores of small business owners who were participating in the boycott. Lastly, self-expression motivations, motivations to realize justice, consumer attitudes toward the boycott participation messages of small business owners, and consumer attitudes toward the small business owners themselves had statistically significant positive effects.
The results also demonstrated that patriotic consumption did not affect consumer intention to visit the stores of small business owners who were participating in boycotts related to historical issues. This is because ethnocentrism decreases non-purchasing motivation while moderating evaluations about the quality of products and conspicuous consumption. In addition, patriotic consumption was not very strong among Korean consumers. Instead, it was found to be at normal levels. While consumers with strong ethnocentrism have negative attitudes about purchasing foreign products (Choi and Choi 2016; Woo et al. 2007), Korean consumers’ motivations of self-expression and realizing justice were high and positively affected their intention to visit the stores of small business owners participating in the boycott. This may be because consumers believed that visiting these stores would lead to the realization of social justice, which was related to self-expression motivation; further, boycotting goals were congruent with their beliefs, values, and consciences (Cheon 2019; Klein et al. 2004).
Consumer attitudes about the boycott participation messages and small business owners who were participating in the boycott also positively affected their intentions to visit those stores. The theory of social identification posits that group identification occurs when people feel a sense of unity or belonging to a particular group (Katz and Kahn 1978). People exhibit consistently positive behaviors toward a group when they feel stronger levels of identification (Swann et al. 2009). In other words, consumers regard small business owners participating in the boycott as members of their group that was seeking common values. This resulted in positive consumer behaviors.
Further, the OECD projects a relatively low real-GDP growth rate of 2.49% for South Korea in 2020 (Cho 2019). During times of economic turmoil, smaller businesses rely more on customer loyalty to maintain sales and productivity (Barbu et al. 2010). In this context, consumer loyalty provides a competitive advantage.
This study is meaningful because we found that consumers can interact and build strong relationships with businesses when they have mutual goals during an international boycott and that consumers evaluate these businesses very positively. These results can contribute academically and socially; they can be used to develop theories to better understand consumers’ behaviors as well as find the most effective ways to boycott and implement such actions. It can also be used to better understand the relationships between businesses and consumers as primary data.
This study had some limitations. First, the participants were limited to Korean consumers during a specific boycott that was related to historical issues. We aimed to study how consumer patriotism, motivation, and attitudes toward a boycott influenced their motivation of using small businesses that participate in the boycott. Future studies are necessary to investigate other boycotts to determine the generalizability of these findings. In particular, it will be crucial to focus on causal effects and factors of consumers’ attitudes toward small business and their motivation to use these businesses during a boycott.

6. Conclusions

This study investigated consumer attitudes toward Korean small business owners as well as their intention to visit those businesses when the owners and consumers shared common beliefs and goals during the boycott. In addition, consumers held positive attitudes toward small business owners who shared their goals, and thus, had greater intention to visit those businesses. This indicates that small business owners should share their boycotting beliefs and goals with consumers. These owners can specifically appeal to consumers by posting signs or other advertisements that state their intention to participate in the boycott and fulfill their social responsibilities as small business owners. Doing so provides an excellent opportunity for small business owners to create long-term positive awareness. The results revealed that reviewing the use of a common logo, as was done during this boycott, will be necessary in the future. Using a stimulant, such as the boycott logo, in a proper way may lead consumers to influence the market more effectively and systematically.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Editage (www.editage.com) for English language editing.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Barbu, Catalin M., Radu Florin Ogarca, and Mihai R. C. Barbu. 2010. Branding in Small Business. Management & Marketing VIII: 31–8. [Google Scholar]
  2. BBC. 2019. South Korea and Japan’s Feud Explained. BBC. December 2. Available online: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-49330531 (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  3. Becker-Olson, Karen L., B. Andrew Cudmore, and Ronald Paul Hill. 2006. The impact of perceived corporate social responsibility on consumer behavior. Journal of Business Research 59: 46–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Biel, Alexander L., and Carol A. Bridgewater. 1990. Attributes of Likable Television Commercials. Journal of Business Research 30: 38–44. [Google Scholar]
  5. Braunsberger, Karin, and Brian Buckler. 2011. What Motivates Consumers to Participate in Boycotts: Lessons from the Ongoing Canadian Seafood Boycott. Journal of Business Research 64: 96–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Castelló, Enric, and Sabina Mihelj. 2017. Selling and Consuming the Nation: Understanding Consumer Nationalism. Journal of Consumer Culture 18: 558–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Cha, Inhye, and Boyeun Kim. 2019. A Study on the Receptor Responses According to the Personality of Rationality and Emotional Appeal Messages in Advertising. Journal of Basic Design & Art 20: 538–52. [Google Scholar]
  8. Cheon, Hye Jung. 2019. Political Consumerism, Consumer Boycott, and Social Media: Motivation and Politically-Relevant Social Capital. Journal of Consumer Product Studies 50: 55–88. [Google Scholar]
  9. Cho, Mu Hyun. 2019. South Korea Looks to Own Startups for Growth, Here are the Top 5 in 2019. ZDNet. May 27. Available online: https://www.zdnet.com/article/south-korea-looks-to-own-start-ups-for-growth-here-are-the-top-5-in-2019/ (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  10. Choi, Soon Hwa, and Jung Hyuck Choi. 2016. The Effects of National Identity and Patriotism on Consumer Ethnocentrism. International Business Management Review 20: 173–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ettenson, Richard, and Jill G. Klein. 2005. The Fallout from French Nuclear Testing in the South Pacific: A Longitudinal Study of Consumer Boycotts. International Marketing Review 22: 199–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Fishbein, Martin, and Icek Ajzen. 1975. Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading: Addison-Wesley. [Google Scholar]
  13. Friedman, Monroe. 1999. Consumer Boycotts: Effecting Change Through the Marketplace and the Media. New York: Routledge. [Google Scholar]
  14. Han, Chung Min. 1988. The Role of Consumer Patriotism in the Choice of Domestic versus Foreign Products. Journal of Advertising Research 28: 25–31. [Google Scholar]
  15. Hoffmann, Stefan. 2013. Home Country Bias in Consumers’ Moral Obligation to Boycott Offshoring Companies. The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 21: 371–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Japan Ministry of Finance. 2019. Value of Exports and Imports. October. Available online: https://www.customs.go.jp/toukei/shinbun/trade-st_e/2019/201910ee.xml#pg2 (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  17. Japan National Tourism Organization. 2020. Japan Tourism Statistics. Basic Information by Market: South Korea. Available online: https://statistics.jnto.go.jp/en/graph/#graph--dashboard--basic--basic (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  18. John, Andrew, and Jill G. Klein. 2003. The Boycott Puzzle: Consumer Motivations for Purchase Sacrifice. Management Science 49: 1196–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Kang, Shin Woo. 2019. Producer of the “Boycott Japan” Logo Wishes to Contribute to the Voice of Movement. Sedaily. July 19. Available online: https://www.sedaily.com/NewsView/1VLR7ANDGK (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  20. Kasulis, Kelly. 2019. South Korea’s “No Japan” Boycott is New. But the Wounds are Old. PRI. August 12. Available online: https://www.pri.org/stories/2019-08-12/south-korea-s-no-japan-boycott-new-wounds-are-old (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  21. Katz, Daniel, and Robert L. Kahn. 1978. The Social Psychology of Organizations. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. [Google Scholar]
  22. Kim, Gi Hun. 1999. A Study on the Advertising Effects of Advertisements That Use Patriotism. Master’s Thesis, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul, Korea. [Google Scholar]
  23. Kim, Hyun Sook. 2015. The Study of Advertising Message Attitude and Purchase Intention by “The Belief Inconsistency” and “The Concentration of Psychological Interest upon the Self on Advertising Message”. The Korean Journal of Advertising 26: 325–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Kim, Chan Ho. 2019a. Denounce the Abe Administration, Large-Scale Candlelight Rally in Front of the Statue of Peace. News Khan. August 3. Available online: http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201908032243001 (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  25. Kim, Seung Kwon. 2019b. 5 Months into “No Japan”, Disappearing Japanese Products. Bridge News. November 20. Available online: http://www.viva100.com/main/view.php?key=20191120010007053 (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  26. Klein, Jill G., and Niraj Dawar. 2004. Corporate Social Responsibility and Consumers’ Attributions and Brand Evaluations in a Product-Harm Crisis. International Journal of Research in Marketing 21: 203–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Klein, Jill G., and Richard Ettenson. 1999. Consumer Animosity and Consumer Ethnocentrism: An Analysis of Unique Antecedents. Journal of International Consumer Marketing 11: 5–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Klein, Jill G., Richard Ettenson, and Marlene D. Morris. 1998. The Animosity Model of Foreign Product Purchase: An Empirical Test in the People’s Republic of China. Journal of Marketing 62: 89–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Klein, Jill G., N. Craig Smith, and Andrew John. 2004. Why We Boycott: Consumer Motivations for Boycott Participation. The Journal of Marketing 68: 92–109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Korea Rural Economic Institute. 2019. The Consumer Behavior Survey for Food, 2019. Presented at the Conference of the Consumer Behavior Survey for Food 2019, Korea Rural Economic Institute, Seoul, Korea, December 6. [Google Scholar]
  31. Kyodo News Agency. 2019. Japan Beer Shipments to South Korea Plummet 99.9% in September From Year Earlier. Kyodo News Agency. October 30. Available online: https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/10/30/business/economy-business/japan-beer-south-korea/#.Xh-fK8hKjIV (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  32. Larimer, Mary E., and Clayton Neighbors. 2003. Normative Misperception and the Impact of Descriptive and Injunctive Norms on College Student Gambling. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors 17: 235–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Lee, Jae Hee. 2019. Japanese Media States that Consumer Boycotting towards Japanese Products in Korea is Unusually Long-Term. KBS News. July 30. Available online: http://news.kbs.co.kr/news/view.do?ncd=4252717 (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  34. Lee, Hye Mi, Chul Hwan Lim, and Jin Soo Han. 2015. A Study on the Effect of Corporate Social Responsibility Corporate Image, Brand Identity and Behaviour Intention: Focusing on Five Star Hotels Guest of Seoul Region. Journal of Tourism and Leisure Research 27: 109–30. [Google Scholar]
  35. Ma, Yu Han, and Hyo Gyoo Kim. 2017. A Study of the THAAD Impact of Chinese Consumer Behavior on the Lotte Brand: Focused on Ethnocentrism, Consumer Animosity, and Affinity. Journal of Practical Research in Advertising and Public Relation 10: 66–90. [Google Scholar]
  36. MacKenzie, Scott B., and Richard J. Lutz. 1989. An Empirical Examination of the Structural Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad in an Advertising Pretesting Context. Journal of Marketing 53: 48–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. MacKenzie, Scott B., Richard J. Lutz, and George E. Belch. 1986. The Role of Attitude toward the Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: A Test of Competing Explanations. Journal of Marketing Research 23: 130–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Makaren, Suzanne C., and Haeran Jae. 2016. Consumer Boycott Behavior: An Exploratory Analysis of Twitter Feeds. The Journal of Consumer Affairs 50: 193–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. McCurry, Justin. 2019. South Korean Boycott of Japanese Goods Hits Beer and Carmakers. The Guardian. September 4. Available online: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/sep/04/south-korea-boycott-japanese-goods-beer-car-sales (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  40. Oh, Jung Min. 2019. Boycotting the Japanese Products are Spreading: The Labor Union Participating in the Boycott by Rejecting Delivery and Customer Service. Korea Economy. July 24. Available online: http://www.hankyung.com/life/article/201907246614g2020 (accessed on 24 April 2020).
  41. Oh, Ku Yeon, and Ick Hyun Kwon. 2009. The Effect of Product Warranty Types on Consumers’ Product Attitudes-Moderating Effect of Product Types and Manufacturer’s Business Ethical Levels. Asia Marketing Journal 11: 93–112. [Google Scholar]
  42. Palmgreen, Philip, Lewis Donohew, Elizabeth Pugzles Lorch, Rick H. Hoyle, and Michael T. Stephenson. 2001. Television Campaigns and Adolescent Marijuana Use: Tests of Sensation Seeking Targeting. American Journal of Public Health 91: 292–96. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  43. Pan, Yigang, and Bernd Schmitt. 1996. Language and Brand Attitudes: Impact of Script and Sound Matching in Chinese and English. Journal of Consumer Psychology 5: 263–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Park, Myung Ho, and Young Hye Jang. 2012. The Effect of Consumer Animosity on Purchase Intention of Japanese Products: The Mediating Role of Overall Country Image, Ethnocentrism, and Product Judgment. Journal of Consumption Culture 15: 19–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Park, Yoon Seo, Woo Sung Jang, and Seung In Lee. 2018. Effects of Message Framing, Eco-Friendly Consciousness, and Advertising Appeal Types on Consumer Attitude toward Green Product. Journal of Product Research 36: 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Pham, Sherisse. 2019. South Korea Didn’t Buy Any Beer from Japan Last Month. CNN Business. Available online: https://www.cnn.com/2019/11/29/business/south-korea-japan-trade-war-beer-export/index.html (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  47. Sen, Sankar, Zeynep Gürhan-Canli, and Vicki Morwitz. 2001. Withholding Consumption: A Social Dilemma Perspective on Consumer Boycotts. Journal of Consumer Research 28: 399–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Shim, Kyujin, Hichang Cho, Soojin Kim, and Su Lin Yeo. 2018. Impact of Moral Ethics on Consumers’ Boycott Intentions: A Cross-Cultural Study of Crisis Perceptions and Responses in the United States, South Korea, and Singapore. Communication Research 2018: 1–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Shimp, Terence A., and Subhash Sharma. 1987. Consumer Ethnocentrism: Construction and Validation of the CETSCALE. Journal of Marketing Research 24: 280–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  50. Smith, N. Craig. 2003. Corporate Social Responsibility: Whether or How? California Management Review 45: 52–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Smith, N. Craig. 2008. Consumers as Drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility. In The Oxford Handbook of Corporate Social Responsibility. Edited by Andrew Crane, Abagail McWilliams, Dirk Matten, Jeremy Moon and Donald S. Siegel. New York: Oxford University Press Inc, pp. 281–302. [Google Scholar]
  52. Smith, N. Craig, and Elizabeth Cooper-Martin. 1997. Ethics and Target Marketing: The Role of Product Harm and Consumer Vulnerability. Journal of Marketing 61: 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Smith, N. Craig, Daniel Read, and Sofia López-Rodríques. 2010. Consumer Perceptions of Corporate Social Responsibility: The CSR Halo Effect. INSEAD, the Business School for the World, Faculty and Research Working Paper. Available online: https://flora.insead.edu/fichiersti_wp/inseadwp2010/2010-16.pdf (accessed on 10 January 2020).
  54. Snyder, Mark, William Ickes, and Stella Garcia. 1997. Personality Influences on the Choice of Situations. In Handbook of Personality Psychology. Edited by Robert Hogan, John Johnson and Stephen Briggs. New York: Academic Press, pp. 165–95. [Google Scholar]
  55. Song, Eugene. 2020. A Study on the Characteristics and Significance of the Boycott Japan Based on Text Mining and Semantic Network Analysis. Journal of Consumption Culture 23: 69–91. [Google Scholar]
  56. Song, Kyung Soo, and Na Young Lee. 2017. Study on Social Enterprise Customer’s Relational Benefits Impact on Repurchase Intention and Intention to Recommend-Focusing on the Mediating Effect of Customer-Company Identification. Journal of Human Resource Management Research 24: 101–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Suzuki, Sotaro. 2019. Boycott Japan: How Young South Koreans Keep the Anger Alive. Nikkei Asian Review. October 28. Available online: https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Comment/Boycott-Japan-How-young-South-Koreans-keep-the-anger-alive (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  58. Swann, William B., Jr., Angel Gomez, D. Conor Seyle, J. Francisco Morales, and Carmen Huici. 2009. Identity Fusion: The Interplay of Personal and Social Identities in Extreme Group Behavior. Journal of Personality and Psychology 95: 995–1011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Tsai, Wan-Hsiu Sunny. 2010. Patriotic Advertising and the Creation of the Citizen Consumer. Journal of Media and Communication Studies 2: 76–84. [Google Scholar]
  60. Woo, J., W. H. Goh, G. D. Park, and W. M. Huh. 2007. Consumer Ethnocentrism and Unwillingness to Buy Foreign Products. The Korean Journal of Advertising and Public Relations 9: 230–56. [Google Scholar]
  61. Yomiuri Shimbun. 2019. Anti-Japan Sentiment Causing Decline in South Korean Visitors. Yomiuri Shimbun. September 22. Available online: https://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0006025933 (accessed on 20 January 2020).
  62. Yoo, Jinnie Jinyoung, and Wei-Na Lee. 2016. Calling it Out: The Impact of National Identity on Consumer Response to Ads with a Patriotic Theme. Journal of Advertising 45: 244–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Yoo, Jinnie Jinyoung, William B. Swann, and Kyung Ok Kim. 2014. The Influence of Identity Fusion on Patriotic Consumption: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Korea and the U.S. The Korean Journal of Advertising 25: 81–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Yu, Seung Yeob, and Hee Jun Jung. 2004. The Study on Patriotic Advertising Effectiveness by Social Situation and Consumer’s Patriotism: Focus on Product Involvement. Korean Journal of Consumer and Advertising Psychology 5: 1–27. [Google Scholar]
Table
Table 1. Scale items and reliability analysis results.
Table 1. Scale items and reliability analysis results.
VariableItemsCronbach’s Alpha
Purchasing LevelsPurchasing levels before the boycottI have regularly purchased liquor from 00.0.852
I have regularly purchased clothing from 00.
I have regularly purchased cosmetics from 00.
I have regularly purchased stationary from 00.
I have regularly purchased other products related to the boycott.
Purchasing levels during the boycottI regularly purchased liquor from 00 during the boycott.0.909
I regularly purchased clothing from 00 during the boycott.
I regularly purchased cosmetics from 00 during the boycott.
I regularly purchased stationary from 00 during the boycott.
I regularly purchased other products related to the boycott during the boycott.
Patriotic ConsumptionKorean people should buy Korean products rather than imported products.0.907
Korean people should not purchase imported products.
Only products that cannot be purchased in the Korean market should be imported from foreign countries.
As purchasing imported products increases the unemployment rate of the Korean people, Korean people should not buy imported products.
Koreans should only purchase Korean products so that foreign companies will not earn money in Korea.
There should be higher taxes for import companies to block foreign products from entering the Korean market.
Korean people can only continue working without losing their jobs if we buy Korean products.
Korean products are the best for Korean people.
Motivation in Participating in the BoycottExpressionI participate in the boycott because it reflects my normal beliefs.0.919
I participate in the boycott because it matches my life values.
I participate in the boycott because it is related to my conscience.
I participate in the boycott because the matter in question makes me furious.
SympathyI participate in the boycott as it is an expression of sympathy toward others.0.919
I participate in the boycott as I feel guilty when purchasing products related to the boycott.
I participate in the boycott as it is a way to show a sense of unity.
I participate in the boycott as I am proud of myself for participating in it.
Realizing justiceI participate in the boycott of Japanese products because it is an effective way to change the inappropriate behavior of Japanese businesses regarding the distortion of historical or territorial disputes.0.915
I participate in the boycott of Japanese products because I believe it will change unjust traditions.
I participate in the boycott of Japanese products because it is effective in realizing social justice.
Consumer AttitudeParticipation messageI like this message.0.963
This is a good message.
I am satisfied with this message.
This message is valuable.
This message is interesting.
I like this message overall.
Small business ownersI like companies (small business owners) who participate in the boycott of Japanese products.0.973
I am satisfied with companies (small business owners) who participate in the boycott of Japanese products.
I prefer companies (small business owners) who participate in the boycott of Japanese products.
I think companies (small business owners) who participate in the boycott of Japanese products are trustworthy.
I feel positive toward companies (small business owners) who participate in the boycott of Japanese products.
Intention to Visit StoresI will use products and/or services from small business owners who participate in the boycott during the boycott.0.932
I will use products and/or services from small business owners who participate in the boycott, even after the boycott is over.
Table
Table 2. Principle components analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation: Boycott motivation and item loadings.
Table 2. Principle components analysis (PCA) with varimax rotation: Boycott motivation and item loadings.
ItemsComponenth2
Self-Expression MotivationSympathyRealizing Justice
I participate in the boycott because it reflects my normal beliefs.0.8460.2040.2800.836
I participate in the boycott because it matches my life values.0.8330.3060.2260.839
I participate in the boycott because it is related to my conscience.0.7690.3340.3180.805
I participate in the boycott because the matter in question makes me furious.0.7490.1690.4220.767
I participate in the boycott because it is an expression of my sympathy toward others.0.1820.8100.3060.784
I participate in the boycott because I feel guilty when purchasing products related to the boycott.0.1920.8020.0800.686
I participate in the boycott because it is a way to show a sense of unity.0.2170.7980.3520.808
I participate in the boycott because I am proud of myself for participating in it.0.4180.6710.2250.676
I participate in the boycott of Japanese products because it is an effective way to change the inappropriate behavior of Japanese businesses regarding the distortion of historical or territorial disputes.0.2890.2580.8460.865
I participate in the boycott against Japan because I believe it will change unjust traditions.0.3680.2960.7930.853
I participate in the boycott against Japan because it is effective in realizing social justice.0.4810.3030.7240.848
Eigenvalue3.3062.9082.553
% of Variance30.05926.43223.211
Table
Table 3. Purchasing levels before and during the boycott.
Table 3. Purchasing levels before and during the boycott.
Before the BoycottDuring the Boycottt-Test
MSDMSD
Liquor1.911.0511.110.47117.760 ***
Clothing2.091.0651.150.50921.250 ***
Cosmetics1.550.8731.100.45012.829 ***
Stationary2.001.1121.180.54218.140 ***
Others2.000.8371.180.52321.996 ***
*** p < 0.001, Note: M = Mean. SD = Standard Deviation. All variables ranged from 1 (never buy) to 5 (must buy).
Table
Table 4. Descriptive statistics.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics.
VariablesMeanSD
Patriotic Consumption Level2.5370.724
Motivation to Participate in the BoycottExpression3.7850.899
Sympathy3.1650.925
Realizing Justice3.7880.945
Consumer AttitudesAttitudes toward participation messages3.7000.958
Attitudes toward small business owners3.7860.955
Intention to Visit Stores3.7360.931
Table
Table 5. Regression.
Table 5. Regression.
VariableBS.E.βt-Valuep-Value
(Coefficient)0.5240.143 3.6700.000
Preference of Consumer Nationalism0.0080.0410.0070.2700.836
MotivationExpression0.1530.0530.1482.8860.004
Sympathy0.0540.0410.0531.3140.190
Realizing Justice0.1620.0560.1472.8750.004
Attitude of ConsumersAttitude Toward Messages0.1790.0440.1814.1010.000
Attitude of Small Business Owners0.4600.0430.47210.6350.000
F-value = 116.053, p-value = 0.000, R 2 = 0.585, A d j u s t e d   R 2 = 0.580.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Song, E. South Korean Consumers’ Attitudes toward Small Business Owners Participating in the 2019 Anti-Japan Boycott. Soc. Sci. 2020, 9, 74. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9050074

AMA Style

Song E. South Korean Consumers’ Attitudes toward Small Business Owners Participating in the 2019 Anti-Japan Boycott. Social Sciences. 2020; 9(5):74. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9050074

Chicago/Turabian Style

Song, Eugene. 2020. "South Korean Consumers’ Attitudes toward Small Business Owners Participating in the 2019 Anti-Japan Boycott" Social Sciences 9, no. 5: 74. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9050074

APA Style

Song, E. (2020). South Korean Consumers’ Attitudes toward Small Business Owners Participating in the 2019 Anti-Japan Boycott. Social Sciences, 9(5), 74. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9050074

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop