Next Article in Journal
Human Exposure to Naturally Occurring Bacillus anthracis in the Kars Region of Eastern Türkiye
Previous Article in Journal
Valorization of Food Waste into Single-Cell Protein: An Innovative Technological Strategy for Sustainable Protein Production
Previous Article in Special Issue
Biological Predictors of Osteoarticular Infection Due to K. kingae—A Retrospective Cohort Study of 247 Cases
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Microorganisms
Volume 12
Issue 1
10.3390/microorganisms12010164
microorganisms-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Infective Endocarditis Due to Kingella kingae

by
Raphael Joye
1,*,†,
Vladimir L. Cousin
1,2,†,
Iliona Malaspinas
1,
Leonce Mwizerwa
1,
Maya Bouhabib
1,
Tomasz Nalecz
3,
Tornike Sologashvili
3,
Maurice Beghetti
1,*,
Arnaud G. L’Huillier
4 and
Julie Wacker
1
1
Pediatric Cardiology Unit, Department of Woman, Child, and Adolescent Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
2
Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Department of Woman, Child, and Adolescent Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
3
Pediatric Cardiac Surgery Unit, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
4
Pediatric Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Woman, Child, and Adolescent Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Microorganisms 2024, 12(1), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010164
Submission received: 27 November 2023 / Revised: 7 January 2024 / Accepted: 10 January 2024 / Published: 13 January 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kingella kingae: Virulence Factors, Clinical Disease, and Diagnostics)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Infective endocarditis due to Kingella kingae is a rare but serious invasive infection that occurs mostly in children. Recent advances in nucleic acid amplification testing as well as in cardiac imaging have enabled more accurate diagnosis. A good understanding of the epidemiology and virulence factors remains crucial to guide the therapeutic approach. Here, we synthesize the current state of knowledge on epidemiological features, pathophysiological insights, complications, and therapy regarding Kingella kingae endocarditis in children and adults. Finally, throughout this comprehensive review, knowledge gaps and areas for future research are also identified.

1. Introduction

Kingella kingae (K. kingae) is a facultative anaerobic, β-hemolytic, encapsulated organism belonging to the Neisseriaceae family of Gram-negative bacteria that yields positive oxidase and negative catalase reactions [1,2,3]. Since the early 1990s, advances in culture and molecular diagnostic methods have significantly improved K. kingae detection, leading to its recognition as an important cause of invasive infection in children [4,5,6]. Epidemiological studies have shown that K. kingae belongs to the commensal flora of the oropharynx of healthy children aged 6 months to 4 years and is carried by 10–12% of children aged 12 to 24 months [5,6,7]. While most children with K. kingae pharyngeal carriage remain asymptomatic, the reported annual incidence of invasive infections reaches 9.4 cases per 100,000 children [8]. Although K. kingae is widely recognized as a frequent cause of pediatric osteoarticular infections and bacteremia, it has also been associated with pneumonia, meningitis, peritonitis, and infective endocarditis (IE) [4,9,10]. Infective endocarditis is a major clinical challenge associated with high mortality and morbidity [11,12]. In adults, the estimated incidence of IE is 13.8/100,000 subjects per year [11,13]. In the pediatric population, the reported incidence is lower, ranging from 0.45 to 0.84/100,000 subjects per year, but with an upward trend being observed in recent years [12,14,15,16,17,18]. K. kingae is a rare cause of IE typically affecting children and is associated with a high rate of complications [19,20].
In this article, we sought to review the current state of knowledge on the physiopathological, epidemiological, and clinical features of IE due to K. kingae, as well as discuss diagnostic issues and treatment strategies.

2. Pathogenicity

Invasive infections including IE require several pathophysiological steps. First, K. kingae must colonize the host’s oropharynx, and therefore adhere to the respiratory epithelium. Afterward, a breach in the epithelial barrier is required to allow the organism to enter the bloodstream where dissemination to distant sites can take place. Several pathogenic characteristics of K. kingae such as pili, exotoxin, polysaccharide capsule, and galactan exopolysaccharide seem to be essential for the bacteria to survive in the intravascular compartment as well as in various body sites such as endocardium [21], and these are detailed hereafter.
Adherence and motility are mainly mediated by the type 4 pili (T4P) and a trimeric autotransporter named Kingella Nhha homolog (Knh). The T4P are filamentous surface fibers that are of paramount importance for various virulence factors such as surface twitching motility, adherence to human cells, and competence for transformation, that enables the uptake of exogenous DNA [6,21,22]. The PilA1 gene encodes for the major pilin subunit and is therefore needed for T4P genesis [22]. Furthermore, the level of piliation has been shown to vary among various K. kingella strains and also within a single strain subculture as well [22]. The piliated strains exhibit a high level of adherence to the epithelial and synovial cells. Interestingly, bacteria isolated from patients with IE are non-piliated, while the strains associated with bacteriemia without a focal infection exhibit T4P. This suggests that piliation is not required to invade endocardium [6,22]. Moreover, adherence is significantly enhanced by Knh, which has been shown to exhibit a stronger adhesive effect than T4P when considered separately and under shear stress [21,22,23]. In addition to adherence, T4P filaments are also capable of retraction, an ability necessary for twitching motility and natural competence. Two cytoplasmic enzymes (PilT and PilU) remove PilA1 subunits from the base of the filaments, enabling T4P dynamic retraction [23].
Once the respiratory epithelium is colonized, translocation across the epithelium is mediated, among other factors, by the RTX toxin, which belongs to the family of pore-forming exotoxins [21]. The RTX toxin is encoded by the rtx gene found in all strains of K. kingae, as well as in Kingella negevensis species [24]. Additionally to rtx, four other genes (rtxB, rtxC, rtxD, and tolC) are required for production, activation, and exocytosis of the RTX toxin and are located on two loci that are thought to have been acquired through horizontal transfer from other bacterial species [25,26]. RTX toxin is synthetized in a non-toxic form that needs further acyltransferase-mediated activation by the RtxC protein [27,28]. After activation, RTX toxin is secreted through an outer membrane protein encoded by rtxB, rtxD, and tolC [29]. Its cytotoxic effect is then mediated through insertion and pore formation into cell membranes, leading to cell death [21]. Data issued from a rat model have provided important insight on RTX toxin’s role during invasive infection. The inoculation of a K. kingae strain isolated from a child with septic arthritis led to a dramatic decrease in white blood cell count, multiple organ failure, and death. Meanwhile, animals inoculated with an RTX toxin-deficient mutant of the same strain did not show any sign of disease [30].
Moreover, RTX toxin can also be secreted via outer membrane vesicles. These are small, spherical structures, derived from the bacterial membrane, which allow Gram-negative bacteria to release various toxins and proteins [6,21]. These vesicles are typically phagocytosed by many eukaryote cells distant from the bacteria, promoting a cytotoxic effect and an increased inflammatory response, thus potentializing RTX toxin’s virulence [31].
Protection from phagocytosis, as well as neutrophils and complement-mediated killing, is typically provided by a polysaccharide capsule in many human pathogens [6]. In fact, K. kingae’s lipid-anchored polysaccharide capsule has been visualized using thin-section transmission electron microscopy after being stained with cationic ferritin [23]. The genetic basis of K. kingae encapsulation has been widely studied; findings suggest that capsule genes may be scattered throughout the genome [32]. An ABC-transporter-type operon called ctrABCD, which shares a homologous locus in Neisseria meningitidis genome, is required for capsule export and surface presentation [23]. Furthermore, two other genes, LipA and LipB, are essential for capsular surface localization [32]. Similarly, homologs of these genes found in Escherichia coli and Neisseria meningitidis were shown to mediate the linking between the lipid membrane and the polysaccharide capsule [33]. Finally, the capsule synthase, encoded by the csaA gene, is necessary to generate the [3)-β-GalpNAc-(1→5)-β-Kdop(2→] polysaccharide capsule (type A) [32]. Further investigation revealed that four distinct synthases encoded by four genetic loci (csa, csb, csc, and csd) define the capsule type (A, B, C, and D, respectively) [34]. The different types are characterized according to their molecular structure as follows: [6)-α-GlcpNAc-(1→5)-β-(8-OAc)Kdop-(2→] for type B, [3)-β-Ribf-(1→2)-β-Ribf-(1→2)-β-Ribf-(1→4)-β-Kdop-(2→] for type C, and [P-(O→3)[β-Galp-(1→4)]-β-GlcpNAc-(1→3)-α-GlcpNAc-1-] for type D [33,34]. Interestingly, these four types seem to be key components of virulence factors among K. kingae strains [33]. In a French cohort, type C and D capsules were mainly encountered in strains colonizing the oropharynx of healthy children, while types A and B appeared to have a higher pathogenic profile [35]. Nevertheless, these observations were made mainly on osteoarticular infections, and further studies are needed to better characterize their role in the pathogenicity of endocarditis. As described above, adherence is a critical determinant for colonization of the respiratory epithelium; an interplay between T4P, Knh, and the polysaccharide capsule is mandatory for full-level adherence [23,36]. First, T4P interacts with the host respiratory epithelium cell. Through PilT-mediated retraction, the bacteria are then pulled toward the host cell membrane, physically displacing the polysaccharide capsule and exposing Knh to the respiratory epithelium [23]. This process therefore enables Knh-mediated high-affinity adherence without the necessity of genetic capsule downregulation [23]. Furthermore, it has been proven that the polysaccharide capsule was of paramount importance in evading the host immune response. Data from a rat model highlighted the critical role of K. kingae polysaccharides in preventing opsonin (IgG, IgM, C4b, and C3b) deposition and complement-mediated killing, thus improving intravascular survival and enhancing virulence [37]. Moreover, an in vitro study recently showed that K. kingae’s polysaccharide capsule is able to prevent neutrophil activation and binding, as well as the production of reactive oxygen species [38].
In addition to the lipid-anchored polysaccharides, K. kingae also exhibits the ability of galactan exopolysaccharide secretion, which is involved in biofilm establishment, growth, and architectural remodeling [6]. This expolysaccharide is a polymer of galactofuranose that is present in two recognized structures in K. kingae, based on the link connecting the galactofuranose residues [39]. Interestingly, data from in vivo studies have shown that the galactan exopolysaccharide shares an overlapping effect with the polysaccharide capsule in terms of resistance to opsonization [37]. Additionally, the galactan exopolysaccharide exhibits a distinct function from polysaccharides when it comes to neutrophil evasion, such as reducing neutrophil phagocytosis and sensitivity to antimicrobial peptides [38].
Several genotyping studies using various molecular methods have sought to describe the global genetic diversity of K. kingae species and to determine which strains are responsible for invasive infections. Multilocus sequence typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, as well as single-gene typing methods targeting the rtxA or the por genes have identified 40 sequence types, 18 rtxA alleles, and 12 por alleles [40,41,42,43]. Furthermore, one specific sequence type, named ST-24, seemed to be significantly associated with cases of IE [40]. More recently, an analysis performed by a more rapid and cost-effective molecular typing tool targeting the DNA uptake sequence revealed that only five sequence-type complexes accounted for the majority of K. kingella strains found worldwide. Moreover, this study confirmed that most IE cases were due to ST-24 [43]. Finally, a recent study analyzed the whole genomes of 125 international K. kingae strains isolated in healthy carriers and patients with invasive infections. While the study failed to identify single genes able to discriminate between colonizers and invasive organisms, significant differences in the distribution of multiple genes were found among them. Interestingly, a gene encoding the iron-regulated protein FrpC was absent in all strains associated with IE, suggesting a potential role in endocarditis pathogenicity [44]. However, data on the relationship between serotypes and the severity of endocarditis remain scarce, and further studies are needed to better understand the specificities of endocarditis.

3. Infective Endocarditis

3.1. Epidemiology and Clinical Features

While K. kingae asymptomatic carriage and osteoarticular infections are well known, data on IE epidemiology remain scarce. Colonization of an infant’s oropharynx typically begins around 6 months, which probably corresponds to the decline in maternal antibodies and the onset of daycare attendance [2,45,46]. The colonization rate peaks in children aged 12–24 months, with a reported prevalence ranging from 9 to 23% depending on study populations, and decreases afterwards [7,47,48,49]. A single subject is generally subsequently colonized by several different strains, each lasting weeks to months, thus indicating that a strain-specific immune response is triggered by carriage without the need for invasive infections [2,47]. Moreover, it is important to keep in mind that less than 1% of asymptomatic pediatric carriers will develop an invasive infection [7].
Most invasive infections due to K. kingae are osteoarticular and caused by a breach through the respiratory epithelium, allowing the bacteria to invade the bloodstream. Therefore, the incidence of K. kingae invasive infections increases during autumn and winter, mirroring respiratory viral infections such as rhinovirus and enterovirus (hand foot mouth), as well as HSV gingivostomatitis [6,50]. The annual incidence of invasive infection was estimated at 9.4 per 100,000 children <4 years old in a study conducted in southern Israel [6]. This incidence is very likely underestimated, as it is based on insensitive culture detection methods as discussed below. Among 143 children with culture-proven K. kingae invasive disease, the highest number of infections was reported between the ages of 6 and 17 months [6]. K. kingae belongs to the HACEK group (Haemophilus species, Aggregatibacter species, Cardiobacterium hominis, Eikenella corrodens, and Kingella species) responsible for 3–5% of all IE cases [6], with the majority of these reported in children and infants [1]. We reviewed the literature and identified 32 articles describing 45 children diagnosed with K. kingae IE [8,19,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76]. While osteoarticular infections mostly occur in children <4 years, 22% (10/45) of IE occurred in children >4 years. Fifty one percent of cases (23/45) had a history of congenital heart disease or rheumatic valvular disease. A native valve was affected in 96% (43/45) and a prosthetic one in only 4%. Most infections were left-sided IE, with the mitral valve being the most frequently affected. In contrast to other invasive infections caused by K. kingae, children with IE typically exhibit high fever, elevated white blood cell counts, and inflammatory biomarkers such as C-reactive protein, as well as an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Furthermore, a high rate of complications was reported (67%, 30/45), such as valvular perforation/severe regurgitation (13), heart failure/cardiogenic shock (2), thromboembolic events (7), meningitis/brain abscess (9), stroke (13), and death (4). Table 1 describes the characteristics of IE cases caused by K. kingae.
In the adult population, data are scarce. We identified less than 20 patients with K. kingae IE reported in the literature (Table 1) [77,78,79,80,81,82]. The median age was 56 years (IQR 41–63) and 39% of the patients were male. Around 20% (4/18) of these patients had a history of immunosuppression. Fever and elevated inflammatory biomarkers were present in all the patients. While, similarly to the pediatric cases, all the infections reported involved the aortic valve or the mitral valve, around 44% (8/18) of the infections involved a prosthetic valve. We identified fewer complications than in the pediatric population (28%, 5/18), including heart failure/cardiogenic shock (4), stroke (1), and death (1).
Of note, the incidence of K. kingae IE may well be underestimated; many cases could have been classified as culture-negative endocarditis, as discussed below.

3.2. Diagnosis

Infective endocarditis is usually suspected in the presence of fever without source and positive blood culture in children or adults with one or more risk factors (i.e., valvular disease, congenital heart disease, implantable electronic devices, central venous catheter, and immunosuppression). The modified Duke criteria rely on the detection of four phenomena that are involved in IE pathophysiology, namely bacteremia, valvular involvement, immunologic, and embolic processes. Therefore, the use of these criteria in the diagnostic process of IE is recommended in adults and children [11,12,83]. In addition, the recently updated European guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis in adults proposed further improvements to these criteria to overcome some of their limitations (Supplementary Material Table S1) [11].
The identification of K. kingae from two separate blood cultures is a major criterion for IE diagnosis [11]. Yet, as mentioned above, organisms belonging to the HACEK group, including K. kingae, are fastidious Gram-negative bacilli that grow slowly and therefore are difficult to identify using traditional cultures on solid media [2]. A study published in the early 1990s showed that the inoculation of blood and joint fluid into BACTEC 460 aerobic blood culture bottles improved the identification of K. kingae by diluting detrimental components [84]. However, the identification of K. kingae remained suboptimal, with many cases of IE considered as culture-negative [2,11]. Around 10 years later, studies on nucleic acid amplification methods found significantly enhanced K. kingae detection rates in bone and joint infections as well as in IE [2]. The initial approach relied on a broad range polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the gene coding for 16S ribosomal RNA This enabled the detection of DNA from various fastidious bacteria, including K. kingae in 23% of cases with culture-negative infections [85]. Throughout the years, this method has gradually been replaced by K. kingae-specific real-time PCR tests targeting the rtx gene, the chaperoin 60 gene, and the malate dehydrogenase gene [86,87]. These methods showed improved sensitivity compared to 16S PCR. However, targeting the rtx locus does not allow us to distinguish between K. kingae and Kingella negevensis, thus the approach lacks specificity. Furthermore, primers from the chaperoin 60 gene-based PCR assays showed suboptimal sensitivity. Targeting the malate dehydrogenase gene has achieved very high specificity and sensitivity and should therefore be the preferred method, enabling a detection rate four times higher than that of blood culture. [87]. Finally, it is strongly recommended that tissue or prosthetic material obtained during surgery for endocarditis undergoes cultures and broad-range PCR, especially in the case of culture-negative IE. As the bacterial load in the blood is significantly lower than on affected tissues, the sensitivity of PCR and cultures on endocardium or prosthetic devices is enhanced [11].
Evidence of endocardial involvement is the other major diagnostic criterion. Therefore, cardiac imaging is one cornerstone of IE diagnosis, even though it is not specific to K. kingae. Echocardiography is the first-line imaging technique when evaluating IE on a native or prosthetic valve. Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is widely accessible, cost-effective, and requires no sedation. However, despite a specificity of 94% in detecting vegetation on native or prosthetic valves, its sensitivity of around 60% is mediocre in adult studies [88]. Therefore, transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is mandatory in all adults with suspected IE [11]. Conversely, TTE alone may be sufficient for the visualization of vegetations in children weighting <60 kg with satisfactory acoustic windows, in most cases [12]. Echocardiography findings encompass vegetation’s characteristics and size, valvular regurgitation or stenosis, perivalvular abscesses, and leaflet perforation or intracardiac fistula [11,88] (Figure 1). A normal TTE or TEE cannot rule out the diagnosis of endocarditis. In the case of negative or inconclusive examination and high clinical suspicion, repeating TTE and/or TEE is recommended within 5–7 days [89]. Moreover, echocardiographic reassessment is also indicated after IE diagnosis confirmation when a new complication is suspected, or before switching to oral antibiotic therapy [11,90]. Cardiac computed tomography (CT) might be helpful in the detection of perivalvular complications (Figure 2). A meta-analysis published in 2021 found that cardiac CT performed better than TEE for detecting prosthetic valve IE (specificity 94%, sensitivity 78%), as well as periannular affections (specificity 93%, sensitivity 88%) [91]. Another study published similar results for paravalvular abscesses and pseudoaneurysms [92]. Moreover, as opposed to CT, the role of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is limited to identifying valvular and paravalvular lesions due to lower spatial resolution. However, MRI displays an excellent sensitivity for detecting neurological lesions [11]. Cerebral MRI therefore remains a crucial examination when evaluating the extent of embolic phenomena in patients with IE, especially when mitral or aortic valves are involved [93]. In fact, up to 80% of those patients may show signs of subclinical embolization on brain MRI, which could help in navigating the complex decision about surgical intervention in IE [94]. Finally, the place that nuclear imaging holds in IE diagnosis is growing. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography (18F-FDG-PET) CT provides functional information based on the increased glucose uptake and glycolysis of metabolically active cells. In adults with a native valve, the specificity of 18F-FDG-PET CT is very high (around 98%) for valvular and paravalvular endocarditis, but its sensitivity is mediocre (30%) [95]. For prosthetic valve endocarditis, the estimated sensitivity increases at 86% with an unchanged specificity, making 18F-FDG-PET CT the examination of choice in the case of inconclusive TTE/TEE [11,96]. Furthermore, in children and young adults with congenital heart disease, 18F-FDG-PET CT has been reported to be accurate in detecting and localizing IE either before or after cardiac surgery (Figure 3) [97]. It was previously recommended to perform 18F-FDG-PET CT at least 3 months after cardiac surgery to avoid misinterpretation of “normal” FDG uptake, especially after prosthetic valve implantation [11,12]. Yet, recent data support the notion that analysis of FDG uptake patterns could be sufficient to differentiate postoperative inflammatory changes from infection, even after recent valve surgery, thus questioning the recommended 3-month period [98].

3.3. Treatment

The recommendations for antimicrobial therapy for IE are similar for children and adults. First, if the patient is not critically ill, antibiotic administration may reasonably be delayed for ≥48 h while additional blood cultures are obtained [11,12]. After the identification of K. kingae, the recommended antibiotic therapy is a 4-week course for native valve endocarditis and a 6-week course for prosthetic valve endocarditis [11,83]. Most societies recommend ceftriaxone or another third-generation cephalosporin as a first-line therapy, given the fact that some strains produce beta-lactamases [11,12,83]. Ten percent of the K. kingae colonizing strains found in asymptomatic subjects and less than two percent of invasive strains produce beta-lactamase. It is therefore mandatory to test any isolated K. kingae for beta-lactamase production [99]. If the identified strain does not produce beta-lactamases, ampicillin can be used as an alternative. However, the opinions of societies differ on whether gentamicin should be associated to ampicillin or not [83], and if so, whether it should be for the first two weeks [11] or for the whole course [12]. Even though the evidence is limited, ciprofloxacin is also proposed as an alternative [11,83].
Furthermore, K. kingae is resistant to glycopeptides and clindamycin. This is a serious consideration when patients with K. kingae endocarditis are empirically administered vancomycin to cover potential methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, before cultures or nucleic amplification results are ready [100]. Finally, K. kingae is almost always susceptible to aminoglycosides, macrolides, tetracycline, and co-trimoxazole [100].
Infective endocarditis is sometimes associated with complications that can only be addressed by cardiac surgery. Currently, recommendations for the surgical management of pediatric IE are mostly based on adult studies. The principal reasons for surgery in the setting of an acute IE are heart failure/severe valve dysfunction, uncontrolled infection, and septic embolic phenomena, especially to the central nervous system [11,12]. Several algorithms are proposed for particular cases, such as IE in a patient with congenital heart disease, prosthetic valve endocarditis, as well as IE due to specific organisms, but those are beyond the scope of this article [11]. Regarding K. kingae, there is no consensus on the optimal timing for surgery. K. kingae IE is associated with a high risk of neurological complications, mostly stroke and bleeding. Lenoir et al. reported their experience with two children treated for K. kingae endocarditis. In patients with neurological complications, they recommend delaying cardiac surgery in order to reduce the risk of secondary cerebral hemorrhage or infarction following cardiopulmonary bypass, and to facilitate valve repair when endocarditis is no longer active [75]. Furthermore, early surgery, especially when dealing with a large vegetation on the left side, can improve neurological prognosis and allow retention of the native valve [64]. It is indeed of paramount importance to aim for valve preservation without foreign material implantation and to minimize the risk for subsequent surgery, especially in children [64,75]. Further studies are needed to determine the best surgical management timings and strategies.

4. Conclusions

Infective endocarditis due to K. kingae is a rare though critical invasive infection that occurs mostly in children. Recent advances in nucleic acid amplification testing have enabled more accurate and rapid diagnosis. Many cases that would have otherwise been classified as culture-negative endocarditis are likely to be identified as K. kingae IE, which will probably enrich the data available on this infection. Finally, while the antibiotic susceptibility of K. kingae, as well as its antimicrobial treatment are well known, more data are needed to better define the role and timing of surgical procedures and predict outcomes in children and adults.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/microorganisms12010164/s1, Table S1: Comparison of 2015 (children) and 2023 (adults) diagnostic criteria for infective endocarditis.

Author Contributions

R.J., V.L.C., A.G.L. and J.W. wrote the main manuscript text. I.M., L.M., M.B. (Maya Bouhabib), T.N., T.S. and M.B. (Maurice Beghetti) critically reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no funding.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

Maurice Beghetti has received grants from Actelion and Bayer, contracted as a consultant, and participates in steering committees for Actelion, Bayer, GSK, Eli Lilly, and Acceleron, outside the submitted work.

References

  1. Yagupsky, P. Kingella kingae: From medical rarity to an emerging paediatric pathogen. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2004, 4, 358–367. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Yagupsky, P. Review highlights the latest research in Kingella kingae and stresses that molecular tests are required for diagnosis. Acta Paediatr. 2021, 110, 1750–1758. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Yagupsky, P.; Porsch, E.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Kingella kingae: An emerging pathogen in young children. Pediatrics 2011, 127, 557–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Principi, N.; Esposito, S. Kingella kingae infections in children. BMC Infect. Dis. 2015, 15, 260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Yagupsky, P.; Dagan, R.; Prajgrod, F.; Merires, M. Respiratory carriage of Kingella kingae among healthy children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 1995, 14, 673–677. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Yagupsky, P. Kingella kingae: Carriage, transmission, and disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2015, 28, 54–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Ceroni, D.; Dubois-Ferriere, V.; Anderson, R.; Combescure, C.; Lamah, L.; Cherkaoui, A.; Schrenzel, J. Small risk of osteoarticular infections in children with asymptomatic oropharyngeal carriage of Kingella kingae. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2012, 31, 983–985. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Dubnov-Raz, G.; Ephros, M.; Garty, B.Z.; Schlesinger, Y.; Maayan-Metzger, A.; Hasson, J.; Kassis, I.; Schwartz-Harari, O.; Yagupsky, P. Invasive pediatric Kingella kingae Infections: A nationwide collaborative study. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2010, 29, 639–643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bofinger, J.J.; Fekete, T.; Samuel, R. Bacterial peritonitis caused by Kingella kingae. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2007, 45, 3118–3120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Van Erps, J.; Schmedding, E.; Naessens, A.; Keymeulen, B. Kingella kingae, a rare cause of bacterial meningitis. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 1992, 94, 173–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Delgado, V.; Marsan, N.A.; de Waha, S.; Bonaros, N.; Brida, M.; Burri, H.; Caselli, S.; Doenst, T.; Ederhy, S.; Erba, P.A.; et al. 2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of endocarditis. Eur. Heart J. 2023, 44, 3948–4042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Baltimore, R.S.; Gewitz, M.; Baddour, L.M.; Beerman, L.B.; Jackson, M.A.; Lockhart, P.B.; Pahl, E.; Schutze, G.E.; Shulman, S.T.; Willoughby, R., Jr. Infective Endocarditis in Childhood: 2015 Update: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015, 132, 1487–1515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Momtazmanesh, S.; Moghaddam, S.S.; Rad, E.M.; Azadnajafabad, S.; Ebrahimi, N.; Mohammadi, E.; Rouhifard, M.; Rezaei, N.; Masinaei, M.; Rezaei, N.; et al. Global, regional, and national burden and quality of care index of endocarditis: The global burden of disease study 1990–2019. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2022, 29, 1287–1297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Jortveit, J.; Eskedal, L.; Klcovansky, J.; Dohlen, G.; Holmstrom, H. Prevalence of infective endocarditis in children. Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen. 2019, 139. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Gupta, S.; Sakhuja, A.; McGrath, E.; Asmar, B. Trends, microbiology, and outcomes of infective endocarditis in children during 2000–2010 in the United States. Congenit. Heart Dis. 2017, 12, 196–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Mahony, M.; Lean, D.; Pham, L.; Horvath, R.; Suna, J.; Ward, C.; Veerappan, S.; Versluis, K.; Nourse, C. Infective Endocarditis in Children in Queensland, Australia: Epidemiology, Clinical Features and Outcome. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2021, 40, 617–622. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Webb, R.; Voss, L.; Roberts, S.; Hornung, T.; Rumball, E.; Lennon, D. Infective endocarditis in New Zealand children 1994–2012. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2014, 33, 437–442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Schuler, S.K.; Crisinel, P.A.; Joye, R.; Rohr, M.; Bressieux-Degueldre, S.; Glockler, M.; Paioni, P.; Agyeman, P.K.A.; Knirsch, W. Swiss Evaluation Registry for Pediatric Infective Endocarditis (SERPIE)–Risk factors for complications in children and adolescents with infective endocarditis. Int. J. Cardiol. 2023, 370, 463–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Foster, M.A.; Walls, T. High rates of complications following Kingella kingae infective endocarditis in children: A case series and review of the literature. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2014, 33, 785–786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Lowenthal, A.; Weisblum-Neuman, H.; Birk, E.; Ashkenazi-Hoffnung, L.; Levy, I.; Ben-Zvi, H.; Amir, G.; Frenkel, G.; Bruckheimer, E.; Yarden-Bilavsky, H.; et al. Clinical Features and Comparison of Kingella and Non-Kingella Endocarditis in Children, Israel. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2021, 27, 703–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Porsch, E.A.; Hernandez, K.A.; Morreale, D.P.; Montoya, N.R.; Yount, T.A.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Pathogenic determinants of Kingella kingae disease. Front. Pediatr. 2022, 10, 1018054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Kehl-Fie, T.E.; Miller, S.E.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Kingella kingae expresses type IV pili that mediate adherence to respiratory epithelial and synovial cells. J. Bacteriol. 2008, 190, 7157–7163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Porsch, E.A.; Kehl-Fie, T.E.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Modulation of Kingella kingae adherence to human epithelial cells by type IV Pili, capsule, and a novel trimeric autotransporter. mBio 2012, 3, e00372-12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Opota, O.; Laurent, S.; Pillonel, T.; Leger, M.; Trachsel, S.; Prod’hom, G.; Jaton, K.; Greub, G. Genomics of the new species Kingella negevensis: Diagnostic issues and identification of a locus encoding a RTX toxin. Microbes Infect. 2017, 19, 546–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Kehl-Fie, T.E.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Identification and characterization of an RTX toxin in the emerging pathogen Kingella kingae. J. Bacteriol. 2007, 189, 430–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Filipi, K.; Rahman, W.U.; Osickova, A.; Osicka, R. Kingella kingae RtxA Cytotoxin in the Context of Other RTX Toxins. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 518. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Osickova, A.; Khaliq, H.; Masin, J.; Jurnecka, D.; Sukova, A.; Fiser, R.; Holubova, J.; Stanek, O.; Sebo, P.; Osicka, R. Acyltransferase-mediated selection of the length of the fatty acyl chain and of the acylation site governs activation of bacterial RTX toxins. J. Biol. Chem. 2020, 295, 9268–9280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Osickova, A.; Balashova, N.; Masin, J.; Sulc, M.; Roderova, J.; Wald, T.; Brown, A.C.; Koufos, E.; Chang, E.H.; Giannakakis, A.; et al. Cytotoxic activity of Kingella kingae RtxA toxin depends on post-translational acylation of lysine residues and cholesterol binding. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2018, 7, 178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Linhartova, I.; Bumba, L.; Masin, J.; Basler, M.; Osicka, R.; Kamanova, J.; Prochazkova, K.; Adkins, I.; Hejnova-Holubova, J.; Sadilkova, L.; et al. RTX proteins: A highly diverse family secreted by a common mechanism. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2010, 34, 1076–1112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Chang, D.W.; Nudell, Y.A.; Lau, J.; Zakharian, E.; Balashova, N.V. RTX toxin plays a key role in Kingella kingae virulence in an infant rat model. Infect. Immun. 2014, 82, 2318–2328. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Maldonado, R.; Wei, R.; Kachlany, S.C.; Kazi, M.; Balashova, N.V. Cytotoxic effects of Kingella kingae outer membrane vesicles on human cells. Microb. Pathog. 2011, 51, 22–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Starr, K.F.; Porsch, E.A.; Seed, P.C.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Genetic and Molecular Basis of Kingella kingae Encapsulation. Infect. Immun. 2016, 84, 1775–1784. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Porsch, E.A. Kingella kingae Virulence Factors and Insights into Pathogenicity. Microorganisms 2022, 10, 997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Starr, K.F.; Porsch, E.A.; Seed, P.C.; Heiss, C.; Naran, R.; Forsberg, L.S.; Amit, U.; Yagupsky, P.; Azadi, P.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Kingella kingae Expresses Four Structurally Distinct Polysaccharide Capsules That Differ in Their Correlation with Invasive Disease. PLoS Pathog. 2016, 12, e1005944. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Basmaci, R.; Bidet, P.; Mallet, C.; Vialle, R.; Bonacorsi, S. Distribution of Kingella kingae Capsular Serotypes in France Assessed by a Multiplex PCR Assay on Osteoarticular Samples. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2018, 56, e01491-18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Kern, B.K.; Porsch, E.A.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Defining the Mechanical Determinants of Kingella kingae Adherence to Host Cells. J. Bacteriol. 2017, 199, e00314-17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Munoz, V.L.; Porsch, E.A.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Kingella kingae Surface Polysaccharides Promote Resistance to Human Serum and Virulence in a Juvenile Rat Model. Infect. Immun. 2018, 86, e00100-18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Munoz, V.L.; Porsch, E.A.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Kingella kingae Surface Polysaccharides Promote Resistance to Neutrophil Phagocytosis and Killing. mBio 2019, 10, e00631-19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Starr, K.F.; Porsch, E.A.; Heiss, C.; Black, I.; Azadi, P.; St. Geme, J.W., III. Characterization of the Kingella kingae polysaccharide capsule and exopolysaccharide. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e75409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Amit, U.; Porat, N.; Basmaci, R.; Bidet, P.; Bonacorsi, S.; Dagan, R.; Yagupsky, P. Genotyping of invasive Kingella kingae isolates reveals predominant clones and association with specific clinical syndromes. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2012, 55, 1074–1079. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Basmaci, R.; Bonacorsi, S.; Bidet, P.; Balashova, N.V.; Lau, J.; Munoz-Almagro, C.; Gene, A.; Yagupsky, P. Genotyping, local prevalence and international dissemination of β-lactamase-producing Kingella kingae strains. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2014, 20, O811–O817. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Basmaci, R.; Yagupsky, P.; Ilharreborde, B.; Guyot, K.; Porat, N.; Chomton, M.; Thiberge, J.M.; Mazda, K.; Bingen, E.; Bonacorsi, S.; et al. Multilocus sequence typing and rtxA toxin gene sequencing analysis of Kingella kingae isolates demonstrates genetic diversity and international clones. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e38078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Basmaci, R.; Bidet, P.; Yagupsky, P.; Munoz-Almagro, C.; Balashova, N.V.; Doit, C.; Bonacorsi, S. Major intercontinentally distributed sequence types of Kingella kingae and development of a rapid molecular typing tool. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2014, 52, 3890–3897. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Murik, O.; Zeevi, D.A.; Mann, T.; Kashat, L.; Assous, M.V.; Megged, O.; Yagupsky, P. Whole-Genome Sequencing Reveals Differences among Kingella kingae Strains from Carriers and Patients with Invasive Infections. Microbiol. Spectr. 2023, 11, e0389522. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Ceroni, D.; Dubois-Ferriere, V.; Cherkaoui, A.; Lamah, L.; Renzi, G.; Lascombes, P.; Wilson, B.; Schrenzel, J. 30 years of study of Kingella kingae: Post tenebras, lux. Future Microbiol. 2013, 8, 233–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Ceroni, D.; Dubois-Ferriere, V.; Della Llana, R.A.; Kherad, O.; Lascombes, P.; Renzi, G.; Manzano, S.; Cherkaoui, A.; Schrenzel, J. Oropharyngeal colonization density of Kingella kingae. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2013, 32, 803–804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Amit, U.; Flaishmakher, S.; Dagan, R.; Porat, N.; Yagupsky, P. Age-Dependent Carriage of Kingella kingae in Young Children and Turnover of Colonizing Strains. J. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. Soc. 2014, 3, 160–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Lillebo, K.; Breistein, R.I.; Aamas, J.V.; Kommedal, O. The first report on epidemiology of oropharyngeal Kingella kingae carriage in Scandinavian children: K. kingae carriage is very common in children attending day care facilities in Western Norway. APMIS 2020, 128, 35–40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Khatami, A.; Outhred, A.C.; Kesson, A.M. Oropharyngeal carriage rates of Kingella kingae in young children in New Zealand and Australia. J. Paediatr. Child. Health 2017, 53, 612. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. El Houmami, N.; Mirand, A.; Dubourg, G.; Hung, D.; Minodier, P.; Jouve, J.L.; Charrel, R.; Raoult, D.; Fournier, P.E. Hand, foot and mouth disease and Kingella kingae infections. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2015, 34, 547–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Yagupsky, P. Risk for invasive Kingella kingae infections and day-care facility attendance. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2012, 31, 1101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Holmes, A.A.; Hung, T.; Human, D.G.; Campbell, A.I. Kingella kingae endocarditis: A rare case of mitral valve perforation. Ann. Pediatr. Cardiol. 2011, 4, 210–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  53. Oloron, P.M.; Ibarra, C.R.; Alvarez, L.T.; Ocon, A.P. Kingella kingae endocarditis. An. Pediatr. 2011, 74, 274–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Youssef, D.; Henaine, R.; Di Filippo, S. Subtle bacterial endocarditis due to Kingella kingae in an infant: A case report. Cardiol. Young 2010, 20, 448–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Gelbart, B.; Connell, T.G.; Konstantinov, I.E.; Phillips, R.; Starr, M. Kingella kingae endocardial abscess and cerebral infarction in a previously well immunocompetent child. BMJ Case Rep. 2009, 2009, bcr0920092238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Dubnov-Raz, G.; Scheuerman, O.; Chodick, G.; Finkelstein, Y.; Samra, Z.; Garty, B.Z. Invasive Kingella kingae infections in children: Clinical and laboratory characteristics. Pediatrics 2008, 122, 1305–1309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Berkun, Y.; Brand, A.; Klar, A.; Halperin, E.; Hurvitz, H. Kingella kingae endocarditis and sepsis in an infant. Eur. J. Pediatr. 2004, 163, 687–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Brachlow, A.; Chatterjee, A.; Stamato, T. Endocarditis due to Kingella kingae: A patient report. Clin. Pediatr. 2004, 43, 283–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Wells, L.; Rutter, N.; Donald, F. Kingella kingae endocarditis in a sixteen-month-old-child. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2001, 20, 454–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Sarda, H.; Ghazali, D.; Thibault, M.; Leturdu, F.; Adams, C.; Le Loc’h, H. Multifocal invasive Kingella kingae infection. Arch. Pediatr. 1998, 5, 159–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Ferber, B.; Bruckheimer, E.; Schlesinger, Y.; Berger, I.; Glaser, J.; Olsha, O.; Branski, D.; Kerem, E. Kingella kingae endocarditis in a child with hair-cartilage hypoplasia. Pediatr. Cardiol. 1997, 18, 445–446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Waghorn, D.J.; Cheetham, C.H. Kingella kingae endocarditis following chickenpox in infancy. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 1997, 16, 944–946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Goutzmanis, J.J.; Gonis, G.; Gilbert, G.L. Kingella kingae infection in children: Ten cases and a review of the literature. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 1991, 10, 677–683. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Joye, R.; Ceroni, D.; Beghetti, M.; Aggoun, Y.; Sologashvili, T. Fulminant Infective Endocarditis Due to Kingella kingae and Several Complications in a 6-Year-Old Girl: A Case Report. Front. Pediatr. 2021, 9, 707760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  65. Verbruggen, A.M.; Hauglustaine, D.; Schildermans, F.; van der Hauwaert, L.; Rombouts, J.J.; Wauters, G.; Vandepitte, J. Infections caused by Kingella kingae: Report of four cases and review. J. Infect. 1986, 13, 133–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. La Selve, H.; Bozio, A.; Vidil, P.; Gallet, S.; Barbe, G.; David, M. Acute endocarditis caused by Kingella kingae in an infant. Arch. Fr. Pediatr. 1985, 42, 35–36. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  67. Lee, W.L.; Dooling, E.C. Acute Kingella kingae endocarditis with recurrent cerebral emboli in a child with mitral prolapse. Ann. Neurol. 1984, 16, 88–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Odum, L.; Jensen, K.T.; Slotsbjerg, T.D. Endocarditis due to Kingella kingae. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1984, 3, 263–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Adachi, R.; Hammerberg, O.; Richardson, H. Infective endocarditis caused by Kingella kingae. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1983, 128, 1087–1088. [Google Scholar]
  70. Bosworth, D.E. Kingella (Moraxella) kingae infections in children. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1983, 137, 650–653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Le, C.T. Kingella (Moraxella) kingae infections. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1983, 137, 1212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  72. Rabin, R.L.; Wong, P.; Noonan, J.A.; Plumley, D.D. Kingella kingae endocarditis in a child with a prosthetic aortic valve and bifurcation graft. Am. J. Dis. Child. 1983, 137, 403–404. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Christensen, C.E.; Emmanouilides, G.C. Bacterial endocarditis due to Moraxella new species I. N. Engl. J. Med. 1967, 277, 803–804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. Rotstein, A.; Konstantinov, I.E.; Penny, D.J. Kingella-infective endocarditis resulting in a perforated aortic root abscess and fistulous connection between the sinus of Valsalva and the left atrium in a child. Cardiol. Young 2010, 20, 332–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Lenoir, M.; Desnous, B.; Raisky, O.; Vouhe, P. Particular surgical aspects of endocarditis due to Kingella kingae with cerebral complication. Interact. Cardiovasc. Thorac. Surg. 2018, 26, 885–887. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  76. Le Bourgeois, F.; Germanaud, D.; Bendavid, M.; Bonnefoy, R.; Desnous, B.; Beyler, C.; Blauwblomme, T.; Elmaleh, M.; Pierron, C.; Lorrot, M.; et al. Kingella kingae Sequence Type 25 Causing Endocarditis with Multiple and Severe Cerebral Complications. J. Pediatr. 2016, 169, 326.e1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Danish, M.; Mahal, T.; Cornett, J. Kingella kingae infective endocarditis in a healthy adult. IDCases 2018, 14, e00471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Chakraborty, R.N.; Meigh, R.E.; Kaye, G.C. Kingella kingae prosthetic valve endocarditis. Indian Heart J. 1999, 51, 438–439. [Google Scholar]
  79. Lepori, M.; Bochud, P.Y.; Owlya, R.; Broccard, A.; Schaller, M.D. Endocarditis due to HACEK bacteria. A case report of endocarditis due to Kingella kingae. Rev. Medicale Suisse Rom. 2001, 121, 47–50. [Google Scholar]
  80. Sage, M.J.; Maslowski, A.H.; MacCulloch, D. Bacterial endocarditis due to Kingella kingae. N. Z. Med. J. 1983, 96, 795–796. [Google Scholar]
  81. Ravdin, J.I.; Brandstetter, R.D.; Wade, M.J.; Roberts, R.B. Endocarditis resulting from Kingella kingae, presenting initially as culture–Negative bacterial endocarditis. Heart Lung 1982, 11, 552–554. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  82. Korach, A.; Olshtain-Pops, K.; Schwartz, D.; Moses, A. Kingella kingae prosthetic valve endocarditis complicated by a paravalvular abscess. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 2009, 11, 251–253. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  83. Baddour, L.M.; Wilson, W.R.; Bayer, A.S.; Fowler, V.G., Jr.; Tleyjeh, I.M.; Rybak, M.J.; Barsic, B.; Lockhart, P.B.; Gewitz, M.H.; Levison, M.E.; et al. Infective Endocarditis in Adults: Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Therapy, and Management of Complications: A Scientific Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015, 132, 1435–1486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  84. Yagupsky, P.; Dagan, R.; Howard, C.W.; Einhorn, M.; Kassis, I.; Simu, A. High prevalence of Kingella kingae in joint fluid from children with septic arthritis revealed by the BACTEC blood culture system. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1992, 30, 1278–1281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  85. Rosey, A.L.; Abachin, E.; Quesnes, G.; Cadilhac, C.; Pejin, Z.; Glorion, C.; Berche, P.; Ferroni, A. Development of a broad-range 16S rDNA real-time PCR for the diagnosis of septic arthritis in children. J. Microbiol. Methods 2007, 68, 88–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  86. Chometon, S.; Benito, Y.; Chaker, M.; Boisset, S.; Ploton, C.; Berard, J.; Vandenesch, F.; Freydiere, A.M. Specific real-time polymerase chain reaction places Kingella kingae as the most common cause of osteoarticular infections in young children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2007, 26, 377–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  87. El Houmami, N.; Durand, G.A.; Bzdrenga, J.; Darmon, A.; Minodier, P.; Seligmann, H.; Raoult, D.; Fournier, P.E. A New Highly Sensitive and Specific Real-Time PCR Assay Targeting the Malate Dehydrogenase Gene of Kingella kingae and Application to 201 Pediatric Clinical Specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2018, 56, e00505-18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Bai, A.D.; Steinberg, M.; Showler, A.; Burry, L.; Bhatia, R.S.; Tomlinson, G.A.; Bell, C.M.; Morris, A.M. Diagnostic Accuracy of Transthoracic Echocardiography for Infective Endocarditis Findings Using Transesophageal Echocardiography as the Reference Standard: A Meta-Analysis. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2017, 30, 639–646.e8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Chamat-Hedemand, S.; Bruun, N.E.; Ostergaard, L.; Arpi, M.; Fosbol, E.; Boel, J.; Oestergaard, L.B.; Lauridsen, T.K.; Gislason, G.; Torp-Pedersen, C.; et al. Proposal for the use of echocardiography in bloodstream infections due to different streptococcal species. BMC Infect. Dis. 2021, 21, 689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  90. Young, W.J.; Jeffery, D.A.; Hua, A.; Primus, C.; Wani, R.S.; Das, S.; Wong, K.; Uppal, R.; Thomas, M.; Davies, C.; et al. Echocardiography in Patients With Infective Endocarditis and the Impact of Diagnostic Delays on Clinical Outcomes. Am. J. Cardiol. 2018, 122, 650–655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  91. Jain, V.; Wang, T.K.M.; Bansal, A.; Farwati, M.; Gad, M.; Montane, B.; Kaur, S.; Bolen, M.A.; Grimm, R.; Griffin, B.; et al. Diagnostic performance of cardiac computed tomography versus transesophageal echocardiography in infective endocarditis: A contemporary comparative meta-analysis. J. Cardiovasc. Comput. Tomogr. 2021, 15, 313–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  92. Oliveira, M.; Guittet, L.; Hamon, M.; Hamon, M. Comparative Value of Cardiac CT and Transesophageal Echocardiography in Infective Endocarditis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Radiol. Cardiothorac. Imaging 2020, 2, e190189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  93. Snygg-Martin, U.; Gustafsson, L.; Rosengren, L.; Alsio, A.; Ackerholm, P.; Andersson, R.; Olaison, L. Cerebrovascular complications in patients with left-sided infective endocarditis are common: A prospective study using magnetic resonance imaging and neurochemical brain damage markers. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 47, 23–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  94. Cooper, H.A.; Thompson, E.C.; Laureno, R.; Fuisz, A.; Mark, A.S.; Lin, M.; Goldstein, S.A. Subclinical brain embolization in left-sided infective endocarditis: Results from the evaluation by MRI of the brains of patients with left-sided intracardiac solid masses (EMBOLISM) pilot study. Circulation 2009, 120, 585–591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  95. Duval, X.; Le Moing, V.; Tubiana, S.; Esposito-Farese, M.; Ilic-Habensus, E.; Leclercq, F.; Bourdon, A.; Goehringer, F.; Selton-Suty, C.; Chevalier, E.; et al. Impact of Systematic Whole-body 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose PET/CT on the Management of Patients Suspected of Infective Endocarditis: The Prospective Multicenter TEPvENDO Study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2021, 73, 393–403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Wang, T.K.M.; Sanchez-Nadales, A.; Igbinomwanhia, E.; Cremer, P.; Griffin, B.; Xu, B. Diagnosis of Infective Endocarditis by Subtype Using 18F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography: A Contemporary Meta-Analysis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2020, 13, e010600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  97. Meyer, Z.; Fischer, M.; Koerfer, J.; Laser, K.T.; Kececioglu, D.; Burchert, W.; Ulrich, S.; Preuss, R.; Haas, N.A. The role of FDG-PET-CT in pediatric cardiac patients and patients with congenital heart defects. Int. J. Cardiol. 2016, 220, 656–660. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  98. Roque, A.; Pizzi, M.N.; Fernandez-Hidalgo, N.; Permanyer, E.; Cuellar-Calabria, H.; Romero-Farina, G.; Rios, R.; Almirante, B.; Castell-Conesa, J.; Escobar, M.; et al. Morpho-metabolic post-surgical patterns of non-infected prosthetic heart valves by [18F]FDG PET/CTA: “normality” is a possible diagnosis. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2020, 21, 24–33. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  99. Yagupsky, P.; Slonim, A.; Amit, U.; Porat, N.; Dagan, R. Beta-lactamase production by Kingella kingae in Israel is clonal and common in carriage organisms but rare among invasive strains. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2013, 32, 1049–1053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  100. Matuschek, E.; Ahman, J.; Kahlmeter, G.; Yagupsky, P. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Kingella kingae with broth microdilution and disk diffusion using EUCAST recommended media. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2018, 24, 396–401. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Microorganisms 12 00164 g001
Figure 1. (A) Transthoracic echocardiography of a 5-year-old girl with infective endocarditis of the mitral valve with mild regurgitation (blue arrow). (B) Transesophageal echocardiography of the same patient that enables a better visualization of the vegetation on the anterior leaflet, as well as a better characterization of the regurgitation (white arrow).
Figure 1. (A) Transthoracic echocardiography of a 5-year-old girl with infective endocarditis of the mitral valve with mild regurgitation (blue arrow). (B) Transesophageal echocardiography of the same patient that enables a better visualization of the vegetation on the anterior leaflet, as well as a better characterization of the regurgitation (white arrow).
Microorganisms 12 00164 g001
Microorganisms 12 00164 g002
Figure 2. Cardiac CT of a 6-year-old girl with infective endocarditis due to Kingella kingae complicated by a paraaortic pseudoaneurysm (white arrow).
Figure 2. Cardiac CT of a 6-year-old girl with infective endocarditis due to Kingella kingae complicated by a paraaortic pseudoaneurysm (white arrow).
Microorganisms 12 00164 g002
Microorganisms 12 00164 g003
Figure 3. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography of a 19-month-old boy with infective endocarditis of a Sano conduit between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery (white arrow).
Figure 3. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography of a 19-month-old boy with infective endocarditis of a Sano conduit between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery (white arrow).
Microorganisms 12 00164 g003
Table 1. Characteristics of infective endocarditis cases caused by Kingella kingae.
Table 1. Characteristics of infective endocarditis cases caused by Kingella kingae.
Children (n = 45)Adults (n = 18)
Sex, n (%)
  Female13 (29)6 (33)
  Male20 (44)7 (39)
  Unknown12 (27)5 (28)
Age, median (IQR)19 months (14–48)56 years (41–63)
Previous heart disease, n (%)23 (51)8 (44)
  Congenital heart disease21 (47)5 (28)
  Rheumatic heart disease2 (4)3 (17)
  None22 (49)3 (17)
  Unknown2 (4)7 (39)
Endocarditis localization, n (%)
  Mitral valve26 (58)7 (39)
  Aortic valve4 (9)7 (39)
  Tricuspid valve1 (2)0 (0)
  Pulmonary valve1 (2)0 (0)
  Other2 (4)0 (0)
  Unknown11 (25)6 (33)
Type of valve, n (%)
  Native43 (96)4 (22)
  Prosthetic1 (2)8 (44)
  Unknown1 (2)6 (33)
Complications, n (%)
  Valvular perforation/severe regurgitation13 (29)0 (0)
  Paravalvular abscess/pseudoaneurysm2 (4)1 (6)
  Heart failure/cardiogenic shock2 (4)4 (22)
  Pulmonary embolism1 (2)0 (0)
  Systemic embolism (other than cerebral)6 (13)0 (0)
  Meningitis/brain abscess9 (20)0 (0)
  Stroke13 (29)1 (6)
  Death4 (9)1 (6)
  None7 (16)6 (33)
  Unknown9 (20)5 (27)
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Joye, R.; Cousin, V.L.; Malaspinas, I.; Mwizerwa, L.; Bouhabib, M.; Nalecz, T.; Sologashvili, T.; Beghetti, M.; L’Huillier, A.G.; Wacker, J. Infective Endocarditis Due to Kingella kingae. Microorganisms 2024, 12, 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010164

AMA Style

Joye R, Cousin VL, Malaspinas I, Mwizerwa L, Bouhabib M, Nalecz T, Sologashvili T, Beghetti M, L’Huillier AG, Wacker J. Infective Endocarditis Due to Kingella kingae. Microorganisms. 2024; 12(1):164. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010164

Chicago/Turabian Style

Joye, Raphael, Vladimir L. Cousin, Iliona Malaspinas, Leonce Mwizerwa, Maya Bouhabib, Tomasz Nalecz, Tornike Sologashvili, Maurice Beghetti, Arnaud G. L’Huillier, and Julie Wacker. 2024. "Infective Endocarditis Due to Kingella kingae" Microorganisms 12, no. 1: 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010164

APA Style

Joye, R., Cousin, V. L., Malaspinas, I., Mwizerwa, L., Bouhabib, M., Nalecz, T., Sologashvili, T., Beghetti, M., L’Huillier, A. G., & Wacker, J. (2024). Infective Endocarditis Due to Kingella kingae. Microorganisms, 12(1), 164. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12010164

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop