A Systematic Review of the Twelve Most Popular Bean Varieties, Highlighting Their Potential as Functional Foods Based on the Health Benefits Derived from Their Nutritional Profiles, Focused on Non-Communicable Diseases

Abstract

According to the US Department of Agriculture, more than 4000 types of beans are cultivated in the United States and worldwide; nevertheless, the demand for beans continues to rise. To some extent, diet can treat inflammation and consequently reduce the chances of developing comorbidities, such as diabetes. A diet based on alternative plant protein sources, such as beans, is a sustainable solution for overall health due to the overconsumption of meat that characterizes Western societies and is even more important for regions that suffer from malnutrition, such as Africa. Reviewing the nutritional profile of the different varieties of beans produced in various locations would help enhance their quality, strengthen the role of producer groups, and protecting Geographical Indications (GI), thereby increasing simplification, sustainability, and transparency towards consumers. PubMed-Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane Library databases were searched for relevant articles published by 30 March 2024. The results have given the green light to the reform of EFSA rules, strengthening the health claims of beans, protecting the GI for each variety, and also highlighting the public demands for functional foods based on the nutritional aspects of this product and its impact on disease management or prevention.

1. Introduction

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) kill 41 million each year, equivalent to 74% of all deaths globally. An estimated 80% of NCDs, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and certain types of cancers, are preventable [1]. To some extent, diet can treat the inflammation that may underlie many of them and consequently minimize the risk of NCDs.

Most researchers have characterized the Mediterranean diet as an “anti-inflammatory diet” [2]. It is a diet that includes fiber and saturated/unsaturated fatty acid profiles while limiting the consumption of foods with many additives. Legumes are a plant source of protein and have a prominent place in the pyramid of the Mediterranean diet because they are based on fiber, which benefits gut health [3]. Recent studies showed that the pigments in colored beans contain anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds that can help prevent cancer, heart disease [4], obesity, and diabetes [5]. Especially black beans, which provide almost the same amount of protein as an egg, offer 8 g of protein per serving (1/2 cup) of cooked food. They are a plant-based protein with beneficial effects on, people who suffer from cardiovascular disease and vegans [6]. The proper combination of plant-based protein sources, which are complete as concerns essential amino acids, could also offer a solution to the malnutrition population worldwide by using proprietary technologies and leveraging expertise in protein science [7].

Dry beans and pulses also have high concentrations of prebiotics [8]. Another bioactive compound is a trypsin inhibitor that plays a role in hormones that control energy balance [9]. Additionally, consumers are searching for foods with health claims [10]. Functional foods promise wellness and healthy aging [11]. However, dietitians should combine the new trend with nutritional advice for each person and each condition according to their recommendations based on individual needs and preferences [12]. Beans can play a role in creating tailored dietary solutions [13] based on people’s acceptance [14] and their components, such as non-digestible oligosaccharides, prebiotics, etc. [8].

Self-sufficiency in grain legumes for both food and feed can be widely attained with a cultivation area 5.5 times larger than the current [15]. Technically speaking, beans are members of the legume family, meaning they grow in a pod [16]. The United States is a net exporter of more than 4000 types of beans [17]. Common beans are an inexpensive source of high-quality food ingredients, and not many researchers focused on their micronutrient profile [18,19,20,21,22] according to their type nor on their possible support of a healthy weight, reduction of heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer [23]. This review aspires to fill the gap in the literature and also link the science of nutrition with the medical and technological aspects in order to inspire food scientists towards the development of new products (bread, pasta, cake, etc.) based on beans with health claims. Except for the health claims, some beans, such as pinto beans, black beans, or kidney beans, have the overall acceptance of consumers [23].

Assessing the nutritional profiles of various bean varieties grown in different locations would help identify differences, enabling better comparison of the nutritional quality of products on the market. This would also strengthen the role of producer groups, protect geographical indications (GIs), and enhance simplification, sustainability, and transparency for consumers. Following the EU Parliament’s final approval of the reform of the EU regulations to strengthen the protection of geographical indications (GIs) for agricultural products [24], this article emphasizes the specificity of each variety. It addresses not only their nutritional aspects but also their specific health benefits, in line with public demand for functional foods. The aim of this review was to assess the impact of the nutrients and nutritional components of twelve bean varieties on overall health.

2. Methods

A review was undertaken to explore the current knowledge regarding the nutritional profiles and intervention strategies associated with the consumption of various types of beans, as well as the benefits recommended by health professionals for individuals with unhealthy diets. This study has inclusive criteria as concern epidemiology data (all age groups, ethnicities, and socio-economic status), design of the studies (controlled trials, cohort studies, cross-sectional studies, and systematic reviews but also with emphasis on randomization, variability of the used questionnaires, sample size), and excluded criteria were the narrative reviews, studies with limited sizes, and concerns about risk of bias. The search strategy involved a comprehensive examination of the following databases:

PubMed searches utilized MeSH terms, specifically targeting “#Beans”, “#Types”, “#Diet”, “#Nutritional profile”, “#Nutrients”, and “#Bioactive compounds”. The aim was to uncover the relationship between the nutritional profiles of different bean types, with a particular focus on micronutrients and macronutrients. Initial search results yielded 147 articles, with 7 duplicates removed, resulting in 140 articles for further analysis.

Searches in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library focused on identifying articles related to “#Beans”, “#Bioactive compounds”, “#Health benefits”, ‘’ #NCDs’’, “#Cardiovascular disease”, “#Diabetes mellitus”, “#Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease”, “#Obesity”, “#Nutrition”, and “#Diet”. Additional keywords such as “#Food” and “#Nutrition” were included. The criteria aimed to gain insights into dietary habits, interventions, and the role of different bean varieties in addressing the interplay with specific bioactive compounds and disorders. Initial search results yielded 180 articles, with 6 duplicates removed, leaving 174 articles for detailed scrutiny. A comprehensive depiction of this selection process is delineated in the accompanying PRISMA 2020 flow-diagram (version 2020) (Figure 1), with the same methodology of a previous study [4].

The Cochrane Library search emphasized “#Beans”, “#Diet”, “#Nutrition”, “#Side Effects”, and “#Evidence-Based Interventions”, with an additional keyword “#Food”. The aim was to identify articles exploring the association between bean consumption and negative symptoms, with a specific focus on the guidance provided by health professionals. Initially, 9 articles were retrieved, and 5 duplicates were eliminated, resulting in 4 articles for thorough review.

The selection of these databases was based on their reputability, comprehensiveness, and relevance to healthcare and research (

Table 1. Details of the search process and the unique contributions of each database to the study.

Database	Keywords	MeSH Terms (PubMed)	Initial Articles	Duplicates Removed	Final Articles for Analysis	Contribution to Study	Reason for Inclusion
PubMed	#Beans, #Types, #Diet, #Nutritional profile, #Nutrients, #Bioactive compounds, #Health benefits, #Cardiovascular disease, #Diabetes mellitus, #Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease #Obesity, #Nutrition, and #Diet.	#Beans, #Nutrients, #Nutrition, #Interventions, #Diet, #Health	147	7	140	Provided a broad understanding of the interplay between bean consumption, interventions, and health benefits; MeSH terms ensured precision in the search	Widely recognized as a premier biomedical database, often used for systematic reviews in healthcare research
Web of Science	#Beans, #Types, #Diet, #Nutritional profile, #Nutrients, #Bioactive compounds, #Health benefits, #NCDs, #Cardiovascular disease, #Diabetes mellitus, #Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease #Obesity, #Nutrition, and #Diet.	N/A (Web of Science doesn’t use MeSH terms)	180	6	174	Enhanced the overall coverage of the literature related to bean nutrients, interventions, and health	Provides a multidisciplinary approach, covering a wide range of scientific disciplines
Scopus	#Beans, #Nutrition, #Health, #NCDs, #Side Effects and #Evidence-Based Interventions.	#Beans, #Health, #NCDs	2	2	0	Strengthened the evidence base by focusing on beans’ bioactive compounds related to evidence-based interventions; MeSH terms ensured specificity	Renowned for systematic reviews and emphasis on evidence-based interventions in healthcare research
Cochrane Library	#Beans, #Nutrition, #Health, #Side Effects and #Evidence-Based Interventions.	#Beans, #Nutrition, #Health, #Side effects, #Evidence-Based Interventions	7	3	4	Strengthened the evidence base by focusing on beans’ bioactive compounds related to evidence-based interventions; MeSH terms ensured specificity	Renowned for systematic reviews and emphasis on evidence-based interventions in healthcare research

).

3. Results

Legumes are the food category that includes beans, which are the seeds from flowering plants in the Fabaceae family [24]. The food industry processes them in order to extend their self-life, and some types are commercially available dry, canned, or frozen. Nutritionally, some varieties are consumed whole, including the pod [16].

Focusing on the nutritional value of proteins from legumes, especially regarding the composition of essential and non-essential amino acids [25], soybeans outweigh the protein content compared with the other types and the possible effects of their consumption [26]. Some of the most popular bean varieties include common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), lentil (Lens culinaris), fava bean (Vicia faba), mung bean (Vigna radiata), soybean (Glycine max), common pea (Pisum sativum), pigeon pea or pigeon bean (Cajanus cajan), black-eyed pea (Vigna unguiculata), and lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) [23]. There are also many varieties of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), such as kidney beans, black beans, navy beans, pinto beans, and Great Northern beans [27] (Figure 2). To become tender enough for consumption, dried beans require cooking [28]. The food technology gave the opportunity of on-the-go consumption for many of them [29].

3.1. Nutritional Profile

This review analyzes the nutritional profiles of the seven most popular bean varieties based on recent literature [23] and also the five most cultivated varieties of common beans of the genus Phaseolus vulgaris [27], since many of them are widely cultivated in Greece [24].

Common Beans Consumed Worldwide

• Black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris);
• Κidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris);
• Navy beans (Phaseolus vulgaris);
• Pinto beans (Phaseolus vulgaris);
• Great Northern beans (Phaseolus vulgaris);
• Black-eyed beans (Vigna unguiculata);
• Lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus);
• Soybeans (Glycine max);
• Garbanzo beans (Cicer arietinum L.);
• Fava bean (Vicia faba);
• Mung beans (Vigna radiata);
• Azuki bean or red bean (Vigna angularis) [30]

The following are the nutrition facts for 100 g dry weight mass and cooked (boiled without salt) per variety of beans. The results obtained from red and black beans showed an increase in carbohydrate (64.16 to 71.56%), energy value (29.68 to 36.27%), and fiber (4.62 to 6.05%), followed by a reduction in protein (4.62 to 6.05%), and fat (4.62 to 6.05%) [18,19,21,24,28,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45], as shown in the

Table 2. Proximate composition of twelve bean varieties (in g per 100 g dry weight at the first row and per 100 g cooked at the second row).

Type of Beans	Energy (kcal)	Protein	Carbohydrates	Sugar	Fibers	Fat (Total)	Saturated	Unsaturated	References
Black beans	310	21.21	67.95	0	4.93	2.16	0	2.16	[31,32]
	370	19.03	71.12	0	5.86	1.1	0	1.1
Kidney beans	386.39	23	70.48	<0.1	20.93	1.38	0	1.38	[18,21,31,32]
	110	9.67	20	<0.1	11.6	0.28	0	0.28
Navy beans	140	24.1	38.5	<0.1	4.3	1.51	0	1.51	[19,31,32]
	127	8	24	<0.1	9	0.6	0	0.6
Pinto beans	143	23.7	38.5	<0.1	4.1	1.24	0.14	1.1	[19,28,31,32]
	123	8	22	<0.1	8	0.5	0.1	0.4
Great Northern beans	208	23.13	23	<0.1	7.77	2.09	0	2.09	[24,32]
	104	7	19	<0.1	6	0.4	0	0.4
Lima beans	392.28	22.47	72.75	3	21.34	1.27	0	1.27	[18,33]
	115	19.35	61.65	2	6	1.14	0	1.14
Black-eyed beans	334.61	16.59	62.81	21.92	7.82	1.89	0	1.89	[32,34]
	99	6.61	17.75	10.25	7.5	0.45	0	0.45
Soybeans	466	36.49	30.2	7.3	22.9	19.94	4.28	15.66	[35,36,37]
	327	38	21.16	3.6	17.5	1.22	0.14	0.53
Garbanzo beans	378	20.47	62.95	10.7	12.2	6.04	0.603	4.108	[32,38]
	164	8.86	27.42	4.8	7.6	2.59	0.269	1.739
Fava bean	301	22.7	30.87	14.98	15.89	1.4	0	1.4	[32,39,40,41]
	116	8.17	20.68	14.98	5.7	0.38	0	0.38
Mung beans	391.37	26.30	68.39	8.47	27.85	1.4	0.025	1.375	[18,42,43,44]
	374	10.58	54.6	5.88	17.15	1	0.025	0.975
Adzuki beans	386.07	26.95	67.84	<0.1	17.75	0.77	0.2	0.57	[18,45]
	329	20	63	<0.1	13	0.5	0.2	0.3

, but also in vitamins and minerals.

Research has demonstrated significant variations in the nutrient composition among different types of beans. Soybeans, according to the health claims of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), are rich in protein content and low in saturated fats [37]. Protein content ranges from the lowest of 16.59 g/100 g (black-eyed beans) to a maximum of 36.49 g/100 g (soybeans). Carbohydrate content ranges from the lowest of 23 g/100 g (Great Northern beans) to a maximum of 72.75 g/100 g (Lima beans). Fat content ranges from the lowest of 0.5 mg/100 g as a cooked form of Adzuki beans to a maximum of 2.59 mg/100 g as a cooked form of Garbanzo beans. Cooking affects the bioactive compounds of beans [46]. Environmental factors like canopy biomass, pod harvest index, and yield components may also affect the nutritional quality traits of navy beans [47]. Regardless of the external factors that play an important role in the nutrition profile, the highest protein content and antioxidant activity of soybeans offer the best quality [48]. However, protein content alone is not enough to justify a high nutritional value claim. The composition of proteins in terms of essential and non-essential amino acids is of crucial importance. In general, proteins from plants from this family are considered incomplete, which is typical for plant-derived proteins. However, there are some exceptions, like soybeans and kidney beans [49]. For example, soybeans have an almost ideal amino acid composition, and their protein is considered complete, comparable to animal-derived proteins. Conversely, common beans are relatively low in vitamins A and C [18,19,20,21,22,27,30,31,37,38,40,41,42,45,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58] (

Table 3. Vitamin contents of twelve bean varieties (μg or mg per 100 g dry weight at the first row and per 100 g cooked at the second row).

Type of Beans	A (μg)	B1 (mg)	Β2 (mg)	Β3 (mg)	Β6 (mg)	Β9 (μg)	E (mg)	Κ (mg)	C (mg)	References
Black beans	17	2.4	0.42	1.9	2	149	6.7	0.56	8.63	[27,31]
	17	0.9	0.1	1.9	0.286	128	0.21	0.56	1.32
Kidney beans	768	0.5	0.03	0.51	6.7	130	0.90	0.56	2.67	[18,19,20,21,22]
	462	1.17	0.103	0.51	0.212	194	0.43	0.56	0
Navy beans	n.d. *	2.2	1.68	2.188	4.28	140	0.02	0.25	4.5	[19,21,22,27]
	n.d. *	0.431	0.12	1.181	0.251	222	n.d. *	0.25	0
Pinto beans	-	4	n.d. *	1.174	4.74	172	0.21	0.56	6.3	[19,21,22,27]
	818.9	0.33	0.106	1.174	0.392	210	3.51	0.56	0
Great Northern beans	n.d.*	0.88	0.19	2.1	0.49	102	5	0	0.01	[19,22,30,50]
	n.d. *	0.28	0.104	1.205	0.207	90	2.5	0.01	0.01
Lima beans	57.2	0.99	0.2	1.99	0.49	300	2.94	0.056	4.37	[18,51,52,53]
	20.9	0.142	0.1	1.33	0.204	34	1.92	0.056	0.03
Black-eyed beans	12	0.51	0.2	1.3	0.3	133	-	-	0.0026	[22,53,54,55]
	0	0.345	0.094	0.846	0.171	356	-	0.007	0.0004
Soybeans	421	0.73	0.39	3.2	6	100	0.12	277	47	[22,35,37,55]
	0	0.7	0.25	2.61	0.57	305	0.12	410	0
Garbanzo beans	67	0.477	0.212	1.541	0.535	557	0.82	9	4	[22,38]
	27	0.116	0.063	0.526	0.228	172	0.35	4	1.3
Fava beans	350	<1	<1	1.5	<1	96	0.08	n.d. *	33	[22,40,41,56]
	270	0.372	0.11	1.2	0.094	58	0	n.d. *	19.8
Mung beans	10.9	0.5	0.3	2.2	-	-	12.5	n.d. *	10	[18,42,57]
	13	0.05	0.102	0.817	0.054	29	0	22.7	10
Azuki beans	18	0.04	0.02	0.96	0.4	278	36.87	n.d. *	0	[18,45,58]
	17	0	0	2.63	0.351	622	12.46	n.d. *	0

* n.d. = not detectable or below the limit of quantitation in the sample.

).

Niacin exhibits the highest concentration in dry seeds, ranging from 0.51 to 3.2 mg per 100 g. Thiamine follows, with a range of 0.04 to 2.4 mg, and riboflavin with 3.5 to 12.3 mg. Vitamin B6 ranges from 0.054 to 4.28 mg, while vitamin B9 varies from 58 to 557 μg [59]. Apart from their high amount of vitamins (B1, B2, B3, C, E, etc.), beans are characterized by also high amount of minerals [19,22,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,44,45,57,58,60,61] (

Table 4. Mineral contents of twelve bean varieties (mg per 100 g dry weight at the first row and per 100 g cooked at the second row).

Type of Beans	Fe (mg)	Zn (mg)	Mg (mg)	P (mg)	Ca (mg)	Cu (mg)	K (mg)	Na (mg)	References
Black beans	5.34	3.37	180	522	191	1.12	1540	75	[19]
	2.10	1.12	70	140	27	0.209	355	2
Kidney beans	523	3.29	164	612	98	0.865	1490	3	[19]
	144	1.07	45	142	28	0.242	403	2
Navy beans	5.29	3.31	180	523	229	1.14	1470	0	[19]
	2.36	1.03	53	144	69	389	389	0
Pinto beans	5.4	3.43	170	507	161	0.978	1510	2	[19]
	2.09	3.31	50	147	46	0.219	436	2
Great Northern beans	180	3.45	176	519	192	1.08	1520	3	[19]
	53	0.88	50	165	68	0.247	391	2
Lima beans	8.7	4.5	312	295	225	0.82	1375.48	19.59	[18,33,60]
	7.25	4	225	224.6	189	0.82	887	10.1
Black-eyed beans	5.86	4.68	71.28	121.91	71.56	0.458	1377	40.20	[22,34]
	4.29	2.21	91	267	41	0.458	475	7
Soybeans	5	2	280	704	1570	4.07	1506	179.7	[34,35,37]
	4.42	0.99	280	674	241	4.07	2384	2
Garbanzo beans	4.31	2.76	79	252	57	0.656	718	24	[38]
	2.89	1.53	48	168	49	0.352	291	11
Fava beans	7	5.67	102	1117	172	2.01	1285	27	[22,39,40,41]
	5.44	4.18	76	194	117	1.48	1220	4
Mung beans	3.97	2.55	139.78	357.52	96.85	1	972.51	21.54	[18,34,42,44,57]
	3.09	1.84	32.87	199.98	65.17	0.64	232.2	4
Azuki beans	7.56	2.33	114.79	244.63	71.53	1.1	1449.51	73.97	[18,45,58,61]
	4.6	4	119	17	66	1	1223	5

).

Beans could be characterized as functional foods according to their amount of linoleic acid and linolenic acid [62], with special reference to fava beans [63]. At the same time, beans don’t increase cholesterol levels [64]. However, the most significant discovery is that their distinctive combination of plant protein and dietary fibers provides them with both functional and bioactive properties [63]. This combination, which is characteristic especially for the red kidney bean [65] and pinto beans [66], may play a role as a potential mechanism for lowering total serum cholesterol or reducing postprandial glucose elevation in both diabetic and nondiabetic participants [49]. Except from their macronutrient and micronutrient profile, beans have a high content of phytochemicals [67,68] that enhance overall health [59].

3.2. Health Benefits

3.2.1. Cardiovascular Disease

People who regularly eat beans may have a lower risk of dying from a heart attack or other cardiovascular problems. Replacement of meat products with beans as a protein source leads to decreased intake of sulphur-containing amino acids, like methionine and cysteine. Lower methionine in turn leads to a lower level of homocysteine in the blood. High levels of homocysteine have been linked to early development of heart disease. Due to their high protein content, legumes are the first choice [19] in minimizing cardiovascular risk [69] or high blood pressure [19]. Beans are one of the best sources of soluble fiber, which naturally lowers cholesterol levels, according to the National Lipid Association [70]. Although soybeans and other varieties have a very low total fat content, daily consumption of soybeans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) as a meal with 180 g of canned beans and 90 g of cooked rice in combination with 180 g of white rice lowers cholesterol levels due to the high fiber content [71]. These little powerhouses are also rich in potassium, a mineral that is important for regulating blood pressure. According to the latest survey by the National Institutes of Health, few people consume sufficient amounts of this essential mineral [72].

3.2.2. Cancer

Eight studies included in this review have shown that beans are rich in antioxidants that protect from oxidative stress and inflammation. Verbascose from mung beans (Phaseolus aureus) exhibited potent immunostimulatory activity and was suggested as a potential natural immunomodulatory agent in functional foods [73]. The inverse associations of bean consumption with breast cancer were stronger with a higher intake of beans combined with grains such as bread [74]. In 2015, Moreno-Jiménez et al. conducted an analysis to investigate whether beans lower the risk of intestinal cancer [46], with black beans possible prevention of colorectal cancer by impeding cancer cell proliferation [75]. One potential explanation for this effect is the elevated concentration of polyphenols, a type of antioxidant, with black beans demonstrating higher antioxidant activity [46]. Antioxidants play a crucial role in neutralizing the effects of free radicals [76]. Beans aid in eliminating free radicals from the body, thereby helping to protect against diseases. Notably, according to the latest study by Baxter et al. (2019), consuming 35 g/day of navy beans was found to be beneficial [77], a finding consistent with the results of Borresen et al. (2016) concerning colorectal cancer (CRC) survivors [78].

3.2.3. Diabetes Mellitus

From 78 studies, only 10 were randomized control trials that evaluated the specific varieties of beans and their impact on glucose control in diabetes patients. Beans may help reduce steep post-prandial glucose levels [79]. The explanation of these metabolic benefits is their high content of fibers that range from 4.6 g in fava beans up to 9.6 g fiber in navy beans and 6.2 g in 100 g cooked chickpeas [80]. These ingredients may lead to a lower risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus [81]. EFSA considers a daily intake of 25 g or more dietary fiber sufficient in reducing the complications of diabetes mellitus [82] and may help regulate post-prandial glucose levels [83]. Reverri et al. (2015) demonstrated in patients with metabolic syndrome, including diabetes, that meals containing black beans led to reduced postprandial insulin concentrations [84], and that could happen even with 100 g of legumes in the daily diet of people with type 2 diabetes [85]. The PREDIMED study [85] results were the same as the last study of Mirmiran et al. (2019). In a randomized controlled study where participants consumed one serving of legumes per day [86], it was observed that those who consumed beans experienced a reduction in blood sugar levels and lower blood pressure compared to the control group, which consumed more whole wheat fiber. In addition to the recommended daily intake of 40 g of dietary fiber [87], another important consideration for individuals with prediabetes, type 1 diabetes, or type 2 diabetes is the glycemic index (GI) of foods [88]. Among legumes, soybeans have the lowest GI (16 ± 1%), followed by beans (GI 24 ± 4%), chickpeas (GI 28 ± 9%), and lentils (GI 32 ± 5%) [89].

In a study by Kazemi et al. (2018), which examined pinto, black, and kidney beans at a dose of 225 g/day in individuals with diabetes, it was found that could help in glucose stability [90]. Increasing fiber intake (15 g to 30 g/day) is a usual recommendation for diabetics [91] and is necessary as part of dietetic diabetic management. Possible mechanisms involved in blood glucose homeostasis regulation include phytolectins, phytates, and amylase inhibitors, which play crucial roles in diabetes management [92].

Furthermore, the mechanism may be linked to the reduction of TNF-α and IL-6, as well as lower post-prandial insulin levels in patients who received products derived from Adzuki beans for 4 weeks [93].

3.2.4. Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

Usual comorbidity with T2DM is NAFLD and requires the same treatment as concerned lifestyle changes and regular controlling lipidemic profile changes and blood pressure [94]. Replacing high-fat animal proteins with beans is a good step towards better liver health [95]. In a cross-sectional study of 136 subjects, a significant inverse association was found between chickpea consumption and NAFLD severity [96]. In 2020, published the latest comprehensive guidelines on diet and liver disease, recommended at least 450 g of legumes per week (about 2 cans of chickpeas) [97].

3.2.5. Obesity

83 studies from the Web of Science and 6 from PubMed were the initial search results, but only 8 were assessed after the eligibility check. The fiber and healthy starches contained in beans can reduce appetite [98]. As a long-term dietary strategy, this could help prevent overeating and lead to weight loss, according to Papanikolaou (2023), who showed that higher consumption of dried and/or canned beans is associated with a normal weight [99]. Numerous studies found a link between non-digestible oligosaccharides and protein consumption with a healthier body mass index (BMI) [100,101]. In addition, participants in a study who incorporated four servings of cooked legumes per week into a low-fat, high-fiber (>25 g/day) diet for 12 months lost more weight [102]. More recently, a study of 15,185 people found that those who consumed beans can contribute to gaining less weight and abdominal fat over a ten-year period than those who did not [103]. A weight reduction of 2.24 kg (average 0.448 kg per week) was observed with an amount of 2400 mg/day of white kidney bean extract before each daily meal for 35 consecutive days [104].

This weight loss was consistent with that observed in a previous study over a 12-week duration, which utilized a portion of 500 mg/day and resulted in an average weight decrease of 2.91 kg [105]. The effects of Adzuki bean products on body weight control have been studied, revealing three main impacts: decreased food intake, increased energy expenditure, and reduced adipose tissue (

Table 5. Summarized the health benefits derived from the nutritional profiles of various bean varieties.

Author/(Year)	Study	Age Group	Participants	Conclusions
Kirkpatrick et al. (2023) [70]	National Study (1999–2019)	18- ≥ 60 years old	170.000 patients with dyslipidemia	Healthy diet pattern that includes bean consumption, improves lipidemic profile and other CVD risk factors
Doma et al. (2023) [71]	Multicenter, randomized, crossover Study	48.1 ± 14.2 years old	73 patients with elevated LDL Cholesterol	Daily consumption of canned beans impacts on minimizing total cholesterol and LDL
Shea et al. (2024) [72]	National Survey 2015–March 2020	60- ≥ 80-years old	3094 elderly	The older the lower consumption of beans, the lower plant-based protein intake and protection against diseases
Sangaramoorthy et al. (2018) [74]	Population-based case-control study conducted from 1995–2004) (the San Francisco Bay Area Breast Cancer Study)	35–75 years old	2133 breast cancer patients	Reduced breast cancer risk with a higher intake of bean fibers
Baxter et al. (2019) [77]	Randomized controlled trial	60.9 ± 11 years old	18 colorectal cancer survivors	Different types and dose of beans protect against colon cancer
Borresen et al. (2016) [78]	Randomized controlled single-blinded trial	58–65 years old	29 colorectal cancer survivors	Increased bean consumption associates with colorectal cancer chemoprevention
Reverri et al. (2015) [84]	Randomized controlled crossover trial	≥18 years old	12 patients with metabolic syndrome	Postprandial insulin levels and antioxidant endpoints are lower after bean consumption
Becerra-Tomás et al. (2018) [85]	Randomized, multi-center, parallel-group clinical trial between October 2003–2010 (the PREDIMED study)	67 ± 6 years old	3349 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus	Beans consumption is inversely associated with type 2 diabetes incidence
Mirmiran et al. (2019) [86]	Randomized crossover clinical trial	58.1 ± 6 years old	24 women with type 2 diabetes mellitus	Beans consumption increases adiponectin concentrations among type 2 diabetic patients
Kazemi et al. (2018) [90]	Randomized controlled trial.	18–35 years old	95 women with polycystic ovary syndrome	Beans consumption seems to minimize cardio-metabolic disease risk factors
Liu et al. (2018) [93]	Randomized controlled trial	30–60 years old	120 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus	Lower steep increase in postprandial insulin levels and minimizing inflammation
Mirizzi et al. (2019) [96]	Cross-sectional Study	30- ≥ 60 years old	138 non-alcoholic fatty liver patients	A higher intake of beans is associated with lower NAFLD, serum cholesterol, and blood pressure
Papanikolaou (2023) [99]	National Health and Nutritional Examination study (2001–2018)	≥19 years old	44.184 adults	Beans consumption may offer improvements in weight-related measures (BMI, body weight, waist circumstances) and minimize abdominal obesity
Dodevska et al. (2016) [102]	Randomized controlled trial	45–74 years old	47 overweight and obese pre-diabetic patients	A regular-fiber diet affects glycemic control
Tucker et al. (2023) [103]	National Health and Nutritional Examination study (2011–2018)	22.5–66 years old	15,185 adults	Beans consumption impacts on less weight gain and abdominal obesity
Wang et al. (2020) [104]	Randomized, double-blinded, controlled trial	18–65 years old	120 obese adults	Beans extracts consumption impacts on weight loss in a short time period
Grube et al. (2014) [105]	Randomized controlled trial	18–60 years old	172 adults	Helps maintain a healthy body weight

) [45].

3.2.6. Other Health Effects

In recent years, enough evidence has accumulated to show a close relationship between gut microbiota and metabolic syndrome (e.g., obesity). The findings of Monk et al. have shown that different types of beans, especially black beans, improve gut health by the mechanism described in Figure 3 [106]. This can help prevent gut-associated diseases [107]. They also support the function of the immune system and can promote weight loss [108]. The results show that feeding beans [109] and mung beans [110] to mice alters the colonic microenvironment (microbiota and host epithelial barrier) and reduces the risk of obesity by increasing Akkermansia muciniphila [109]. Furthermore, the Mediterranean diet influenced the gut microbiota diversity in adult volunteers who adhered more strictly to this eating pattern compared to those with lower adherence. Specifically, the Butyricimonas, Desulfovibrio, and Oscillospira genera were more commonly associated with a BMI of less than 25 [111]. The potential mechanism of bean bioactive compounds on gut microbiota and obesity has been studied by Nicolás-García et al. [112] and by Cao et al. [113] (Figure 3), but Beane et al. (2021) described gut microbiome impact on overall health [114].

3.3. Side Effects

People already sensitive to chickpeas and soybeans may develop allergic reactions when using these products [115] and should exercise caution when eating other types [116]. Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction to the lectins of beans [117]. Soaking, cooking, and fermenting beans improves bioavailability [118]. Beans should be cooked for at least 10 min to be safe [29]. Another usual effect of eating beans is flatulence, but soaking and cooking reduce enzyme inhibitor levels [115]. Another category of people who should reduce bean consumption [119] or even accept beans from their nutrition are people with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) [120]. Eating beans in the form of beans and black beans reduces inflammation and epithelial damage in the colon associated with colitis [121]. Low-FODMAP diet [122] could be a solution to IBD’s symptoms [123].

4. Discussion

The role of lifestyle, particularly dietary behavior, is crucial in the prevention and management of cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, and related health problems [2]. This review focuses on two aspects: nutritional differences between the different bean varieties and their impact on disease prevention or/and treatment (Figure 1). In terms of nutritional profile, beans are an excellent source of protein as well as fiber, folate, potassium, iron, and zinc. For an average adult, the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein, i.e., the amount you need to meet your basic nutritional needs and not get sick, is 0.8 g of protein per kilogram of body weight [124]. For a person weighing 75 kg (165 pounds), that comes to 60 g of protein per day.

A good example of a meal that provides 100% daily value magnesium and 30 g protein is a salad with 2 cups of chickpeas, ¼ cup of soybeans, 3 cups of green leafy vegetables, and ½ avocado [29]. The combination of grains and beans is common because they offer a perfect amino acid composition and their protein is considered complete, like animal-derived proteins [125]. This is also useful for a person who follows a plant-based diet or can be utilized without mixing in gluten-free products [126].

Regarding the other micronutrients of beans, we took into consideration the latest WHO daily dietary recommendations [87].

Comparing these recommendations with data from Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4, it is concluded that 100 g of most varieties is enough to cover 30% of most of the macronutrients and micronutrient intake recommendations and the goals are fully achieved through the consumption of beans as suggested by the traditional Mediterranean diet combined with other plant-based sources. Different mung bean products (100 g) cover 12% of protein needs and almost 5% of the recommended dietary allowance for iron, zinc, and calcium for kids [127]. Finally, vegan diet patterns should not be recommended for pregnant women [128].

The soybean is undoubtedly one of the healthiest types of bean. According to research from 2021 [35], they are one of the few plant foods that provide a high-quality complete protein comparable to that of animal foods. Although fava beans have a similar protein content, their effects on body composition, especially in terms of weight loss and physical condition, are not equivalent [129]. The essential amino acid composition of beans compared to animal protein sources is crucial for their recognition as a sustainable nutritional solution. The lowest total concentration of essential amino acids was found in pinto beans, with most varieties having similar characteristics [130]. In addition, kidney beans and pinto beans were found to have the highest lysine content at 537 mg and 538 mg per 0.5 g cup serving, respectively [49]. Regarding the phaseolin protein fraction of beans, soybeans had the highest prolamine content but the lowest albumin fraction, while the opposite trend was observed in mung beans [34]. In contrast, kidney bean seeds contain various antinutritive factors such as phytohemagglutinin, trypsin inhibitor, saponin, urease, genistein, alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, goitrogen, polyphenolic compounds (tannins), oxalates, phytates, oligosaccharides, and antigenic proteins [131].

The micronutrient composition of common beans in a 100 g edible portion distinguishes black beans for their higher concentration of potassium and kidney beans for their higher iron content. However, the dry form of beans contains a threefold concentration of all micronutrients compared to the cooked form [19]. Incorporating beans into one’s diet, including canned beans, daily is considered one of the most effective ways to increase nutrient intake and significantly improve dietary quality [132]. Potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus are not the only essential elements in beans; even after cooking, the Lima variety (Phaseolus lunatus) retains higher concentrations of these minerals [33]. Population-level data suggests that current magnesium intake levels are insufficient among a significant portion of adults, making it essential to consume more dietary magnesium to reduce insulin resistance and the risk of future diabetes and fatty liver disease, particularly for those with existing metabolic abnormalities [125].

The high potassium and low sodium content of beans is beneficial for people with hypertension [33], and a diet high in potassium may be protective, especially for people with renal insufficiency, which is often cited as a complication of type 2 diabetes [133]. In addition, common beans can help counteract the risk of calcium deficiency commonly seen in older adults [134]. Folate is also important for overall health as it contributes to the formation of healthy red blood cells and prevents neural tube defects in fetuses during pregnancy [135]. A 1-cup serving of common beans provides about 482 micrograms (mcg) of folate [19].

Apart from the minerals, the vitamin content varies depending on the type of bean varieties, and the processing of beans decreases their total content [33]. According to dietary guidelines, most people are also deficient in folate, calcium, magnesium, fiber, and vitamins A, C, D, and E (as well as iron for women of childbearing age) [136]. Beans can help fill these nutrient gaps; research shows that Americans who include beans in their diets tend to consume more fiber, potassium, calcium, folate, iron, magnesium, and vitamin E than non-bean eaters [99].

Canned beans are convenient and pre-cooked, so they can be easily integrated into various dishes without additional preparation. However, it’s important to check the label before buying canned beans, as some varieties can have a high salt content. Typical brine formulas for canned beans contain about 2–3% (w/v) salt and 3–6% (w/v) sugar [126]. Following EFSA’s emphasis on the gastrointestinal effects of beans [110], individuals may want to experiment with different types of beans. Although the 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend consuming 1½ cups of cooked beans per week [137], research indicates that most Americans consume less than 1/3 cup per week [23]. In Greece, dietary guidelines recommend the consumption of 2 cups of cooked beans per week [131], and Greek consumers typically exceed this recommendation and consume more legumes but also more meat, which correlates with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and certain cancers [138]. This overconsumption, combined with the consumption of ultra-processed foods, can lead to diseases such as obesity [139]. Additionally, research suggests that by consuming just one extra serving of vegetables or legumes per day, the risk of long-term illness could be reduced by up to 14% [140]. An explanation of the potential biochemical pathways through which beans exert their health benefits is the fiber’s role in cholesterol reduction and polyphenols’ antioxidant properties [114]. However, beans cause severe flatulence, especially chickpeas and kidney beans [115].

For disease management (Table 5), vegetarian dietary patterns, including the consumption of beans, are recommended for reducing dietary fats and cholesterol while promoting cardiovascular health through fiber, antioxidants, and phytochemicals [19]. One possible mechanism is the reduction in serum total and LDL cholesterol observed in adults with elevated LDL cholesterol who consume beans [71]. However, in adults with established CVD, vegetarian diets did not significantly affect various parameters compared to non-vegetarian diets [141]. Soybeans, with their higher isoflavone content (0.2 to 1.6 mg/g dry weight) compared to other varieties [142], may play a role in managing CVD by increasing essential nutrient intake or reducing cholesterol [143]. New systematic reviews have examined the effects of legume consumption on markers of glycemic control in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus, reporting reductions in glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), 2-h postprandial glucose, and fasting blood glucose [144].

Observational studies suggest that vegetarian and vegan dietary patterns may reduce the risk of certain diseases. A review of 83 studies published from 2014 to March 2024 found moderate-certainty evidence of a reduction in the incidence of cardiovascular disease from eating beans. Low and very low-certainty evidence indicated potential benefits, such as reduced mortality from cardiovascular disease, blood pressure, blood lipids, BMI, and C-reactive protein [74]. There is growing evidence that bean consumption can reduce the risk of fatty liver disease and reduce enzyme and fat storage in people with pre-existing conditions, particularly from soy protein [145]. On the other hand, vegetarian and especially vegan diets have been associated with lower vitamin B12 and vitamin D concentrations [146].

Another study demonstrated the positive effects of bean intake in reducing BMI and fasting blood glucose levels [147]. Mung bean extracts have been found to have beneficial effects on lipid and metabolic profiles at a dose of 3 g [148], while white kidney bean supplementation at a dose of 2.4 g in clinical trials resulted in significant weight loss (approximately 0.5 lb per week), possibly by preventing the digestion of complex carbohydrates and reducing the absorption of carbohydrate calories [104]. Furthermore, supplementation with soluble dietary fibers from black beans at 4.2 g per 100 g for 12 weeks has been shown to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and provide definitive evidence of weight reduction in overweight and obese patients [149]. For individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus, beans included in a narrative review were considered a helpful strategy for reversing prediabetes to normoglycemia as part of the Food Pyramid and showed benefits in reducing HbA1c and BMI, although evidence regarding the need for diabetes medication was mixed [150]. The nutritional profile of beans, such as vitamin C, may help reduce serum levels of fasting blood glucose, fasting insulin, and HbA1c in patients with type 2 diabetes, while polyphenols have the potential to reduce oxidative stress [151].

Recent studies have linked fermented foods, such as a Japanese soy dish, to brain growth. This is another reason for scientists to investigate the role of fermented foods in human health and the maintenance of a healthy gut microbiome [152]. Future research directions could focus on demonstrating the effectiveness of different bean varieties in the prevention and treatment of disease and making health claims, with the limitations of the evidence since observational studies may show correlations but not causation. Large-scale, high-quality studies are needed to better understand the effects of a plant-based diet, particularly bean consumption, on overall health. Functional food ingredients from beans are promising for the food industry as they can be used to produce dairy and meat alternatives [153].

On the other hand, more than 2 billion people have micronutrient deficiencies [154]. Fortified foods can be a solution for high-index quality nutrition [155]. Many bakery products or pastries are enriched with beans (Phaseolus vurgaris L.) or their extractions rich in PUFAS and tocopherols [156]. The nutritional profile of wheat bread could be optimized with alternative sources of bioactive compounds, such as beans, and obtained the title “novel fortified foods” [155].

The most recent study reveals that fortified bread with bean flour could affect consumer acceptance due to the masking of ‘beany flavor’ and may contribute to minimizing malnutrition, as noted in the minor changes in protein conformational elements at the final product [157]. Chickpea flour, red kidney bean flour [158], or mung flour [159] is used to improve phytochemical content, and fava flour to improve protein [160] or fiber content in bread making [161]. Also, Italian pasta uses alternatives such as bean flour to improve glucose regulation [162]. Additionally, beans by-products can also take part in the food industry of baking and pastry products and enhance the circular economy for a sustainable future [163].

Not only for their nutritional value but also for their functionality, many manufacturers label their biscuits with claims such as products for children who suffer from malnutrition [164] when they add beans as novel ingredients. Others focused on diabetic snack bars with clinical trials for better postprandial glucose responses after consumption of a soybean nutrition bar either in healthy adults [165] or in diabetes [166]. Additionally, fortifying snack bars, bread, or other baking products using bean flour has successfully reduced the incidence of celiac disease, wheat allergy, gluten sensitivity, or non-celiac gluten [167]. Finally, further study is needed in order to give the characterization of diabetic products or the health claim of weight loss [162]. However, this study acknowledges certain limitations, including variations in intervention duration and methodology, as discussed elsewhere.

5. Conclusions

Beans provide protein, fiber, iron, and antioxidants that can make them a healthy addition to the diet. Bean consumption should be increased gradually to reduce the risk of intestinal discomfort. All types of beans have not similar nutrient content, and significant changes have been found when they are cooked. Black beans, pinto beans, soybeans, and fava beans have more vitamin C, kidney beans supply iron, and Adzuki beans have more potassium. Of all types, soybeans could be characterized as a superfood. Consuming beans according to dietary guideline recommendations as part of a well-designed personalized eating plan can lower fasting blood glucose, blood pressure, and cholesterol levels, and the longer-term consequences of these effects on well-being have been demonstrated. This review suggests that increased consumption of beans may contribute to the prevention and/or treatment of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers. Further studies are needed to determine the mechanism for maximizing the health benefits of novel products based on beans that could be a call for action for sustainability.