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Article

Miscanthus-Derived Biochar Enhanced Soil Fertility and Soybean Growth in Upland Soil

by
Da-Hee An
1,*,
Dong-Chil Chang
2,
Kwang-Soo Kim
1,
Ji-Eun Lee
2,
Young-Lok Cha
1,
Jae-Hee Jeong
1,
Ji-Bong Choi
1 and
Soo-Yeon Kim
1
1
Bioenergy Crop Research Institute, National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Muan 58545, Republic of Korea
2
Planning & Coordination Division, National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2023, 13(9), 1738; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091738
Submission received: 7 August 2023 / Revised: 26 August 2023 / Accepted: 30 August 2023 / Published: 1 September 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Soils)
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Versions Notes

Abstract

:
As biochar improves soil fertility and crop productivity, there is a growing interest in it as a resource for sustainable agriculture. Miscanthus sacchariflorus has promising applications in various industries because it has a large amount of biomass. However, research on the agricultural utilization of Miscanthus-derived biochar is insufficient. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the effects of Miscanthus biochar on the soil environment and soybean growth. First, Miscanthus biochar was amended at different levels (3 or 10 tons/ha) in upland soil, after which the soil properties, root development, and yield of soybeans were compared with the control (without biochar). In the soil amended with 10 tons/ha of biochar (BC10), organic matter (OM) and available phosphate increased 1.6 and 2.0 times, respectively, compared with that in the control soil (CON). In addition, the soil dehydrogenase activity increased by 70% in BC10, and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that the structure of the microbial community changed after amendment with biochar. The bacterial phyla that differed between CON and BC10 were Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi, which are known to be involved in carbon cycling. Owing to these changes in soil properties, the root dry weight and number of nodules in soybeans increased by 23% and 27%, respectively, and the seed yield increased 1.5-fold in BC10. In conclusion, Miscanthus biochar increased the fertility of soybean-growing soil and consequently increased seed yield. This study is valuable for the practical application of biochar for sustainable agriculture.

1. Introduction

Biochar is a carbon-rich solid produced by the pyrolysis of biomass under oxygen-limited conditions. Biochar is effective for carbon sequestration because it is stable and takes a long time to decompose in soil [1]. In addition, previous studies have shown that biochar improves soil properties by increasing nutrient bioavailability [2,3,4], enzyme activity, and microbial biomass [5,6,7]. However, the effect of biochar in soil differs depending on the type of feedstock or pyrolysis conditions of the biochar and the characteristics of the experimental soil [8,9,10]. Therefore, it is necessary not only to produce biochar with various feedstocks but also to investigate the characteristics of biochar and its effect on soil.
Miscanthus (Miscanthus sacchariflorus) is a perennial plant with a C4 pathway that originated from East Asia. It easily adapts to various climatic conditions and soil types because of its high photosynthetic capacity and water-use efficiency [11]. In addition, Miscanthus has high biomass production and is, therefore, used as a raw material in various industries, such as the construction industry [12,13], livestock bedding [14], and biochar [15,16,17]. Khan et al. [18] reported that Miscanthus biochar inhibited the accumulation of nickel in spinach tissues by immobilizing nickel in contaminated soils. Likewise, studies on the effects of Miscanthus biochar on soil have mainly focused on remediation. However, there is insufficient research on the physicochemical characteristics of soil and crop growth after the amendment of Miscanthus biochar.
Soybeans (Glycine max), one of the world’s most valuable crops, are annual legumes that are a major source of vegetable protein and oil. As a legume, soybeans fix and utilize atmospheric nitrogen through nodules formed in the roots, and it has been reported that the activity varies depending on the rhizosphere soil environment [19,20,21]. Soil quality is crucial for the health of soybeans; therefore, there have been many studies on improving soil environments using mulching, microbial inoculants, and biochar [22,23,24,25,26]. Yin et al. [27] reported that wood biochar shifted the bacterial community in coastal soils and enhanced soybean growth by increasing biological nitrogen fixation. Wu et al. [28] demonstrated that the effect of biochar on soil nutrients and soybean root development was maintained for 3 years with only the first year of amendment. However, most of these studies were pot experiments that were conducted under controlled conditions. Therefore, the effects of biochar under field conditions have not been fully explored. In this study, Miscanthus biochar was prepared and applied to upland soil at different rates. Subsequently, changes in the available nutrients and microbial community composition in soil amended with Miscanthus biochar were investigated. Finally, we determined the effect of changes in soil fertility caused by biochar on soybean growth and yield. This study suggests that Miscanthus serves as a value-adding material to soil; hence, its use represents a potential method to increase the fertility of upland soil through biochar amendment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Biochar Preparation and Characterization

Miscanthus feedstock was cut into 1 cm length pieces and pyrolyzed at 650~700 °C for 2.5 h using a Top-Lift Up Draft (TLUD) gasifier to produce biochar. To examine the characteristics of the Miscanthus biochar, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured at a ratio of 1:20 (biochar/distilled water, w/v) using pH (Orion Star A211, Thermo Fisher, Waltham, MA, USA) and EC meters (Field Scout EC110, Spectrum Technologies, Haltom, TX, USA), respectively. The carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and hydrogen (H) in the Miscanthus biochar were measured using an elemental analyzer (Vario Max Cube element, Elementar, Germany and FlashSmart, Thermo Fisher, Waltham, MA, USA), and the H/C and O/C ratios indicating the aromaticity and polarity of the biochar were calculated based on the content of each element [29].

2.2. Field Experiment

The effect of Miscanthus biochar on the soil environment was evaluated at the Bioenergy Crop Research Institute (34°58′ N, 126°27′ E) in Muan, Jeonnam, Republic of Korea. Miscanthus biochar was amended at rates of 3 and 10 tons/ha (BC3 and BC10, respectively) 20 days before soybean sowing, and soil without biochar was used as a control (CON). The field experiment was performed in triplicate with a plot size of 2.8 × 3 m. The biochar was scattered on the field and tilled to a depth of 0–15 cm. The same amount of fertilizer was applied to all plots: N, 5.1 kg/10a; P2O5, 3 kg/10a; K2O, 3 kg/10a. The ‘Seonyu2ho’, a soybean variety with early maturation, was sown at a density of 70 × 15 cm on 9 June 2022 and harvested on 18 October 2022 [30]. The physicochemical characteristics of the soils in the experimental field are listed in Table 1.

2.3. Chemical Properties of Soil and Enzyme Activity Assays

To examine the chemical properties of soil-treated Miscanthus biochar, soil samples were collected during the harvest period. The soil samples were air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm sieve before analysis. The contents of OM and available phosphate were determined using the Tyurin and Lancaster methods, respectively [31]. The exchangeable cations, Ca, K, and Mg were extracted with 1 M ammonium acetate (pH 7.0) and analyzed using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES, Varian, Palo Alto, CA, USA).
Soil samples were collected at the R3 stage (beginning pod) for enzyme activity analysis. Dehydrogenase activity was measured as described by Sukul [32] with minor modifications. The 2, 3, 5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) was added to 3 g of soil, and the mixture was incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Released triphenyl formazan (TPF) was extracted with methanol and colorimetrically quantified at 485 nm using a spectrophotometer (Multiskin GO, Themo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA).

2.4. 16.S rRNA Gene Sequence Analysis of the Microorganism

To investigate bacterial abundance and composition according to the application of Miscanthus biochar in the uplands, soil samples were collected at the soybean R3 stage. Rhizosphere soil, defined as soil that adheres to soybean roots, was obtained from three to four plants per replicate using sterile brushes after gentle shaking to remove the bulk soil. Total DNA was extracted from the rhizosphere using a FastDNA Spin Kit (MP Biomedicals). The extracted DNA was amplified using fusion primers of 341F and 805R targeting V3–V4 regions of the 16S rRNA gene under the following conditions: initial denaturation at 95 °C for 3 min, 25 cycles of denaturation at 95 °C for 30 s, primer annealing at 55 °C for 30 s, extension at 72 °C for 30 s, and a final elongation at 72 °C for 5 min. The amplified products were purified, and short fragments (non-target products) were removed using CleanPCR (CleanNA). Product size and quality were evaluated using a Bioanalyzer (2100 Bioanalyzer, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and a DNA 7500 chip. Mixed amplicons were pooled, and sequencing was carried out at CJ Bioscience, Inc. (Seoul, Korea) using the Illumina MiSeq Sequencing system (Illumina, Hayward, CA, USA).

2.5. Soybean Growth and Yield Measurement

To investigate the effects of Miscanthus biochar on soybean root development, the number of nodules and dry weight of the roots were measured at the R3 stage. The plants were excavated from the field while ensuring as little damage was made to them as possible, and the roots were washed with tap water and used for further investigation. The root dry weight was measured after drying at 60 °C until constant weight.
The shoot growth and yield of soybeans were measured at the R8 stage (full maturity of plants). Growth characteristics were measured by averaging 24 plants per treatment. Plant height was measured as the length from the cotyledon to the tip of the stem, and stem diameter was measured using calipers. Only healthy seeds were used for the yield after the removal of infected seeds and inert matter.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using R-studio ver. 1.3.1073. Significant differences among treatments were determined using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Duncan’s multiple range test at p < 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Changes in Soil Properties following the Application of Miscanthus Biochar

The chemical properties of the Miscanthus biochar are shown in Table 2. The O/C and H/C ratio were 0.08 and 0.35, respectively, confirming that the polarity or aromaticity of the biochar were low.
The chemical characteristics of the soils amended with different rates of Miscanthus biochar were examined (Table 3). The OM content in the soil significantly increased by 18–61% after amendment with biochar compared with that of the control soil. The available phosphate content significantly increased to 568 g/kg and 690 g/kg in BC3 and BC10, respectively, compared with 346 g/kg in CON. Exchangeable cations also increased in soil amended with biochar (Ex. Ca, Ex. K, and Ex. Mg by 17–33%, 44–56%, and 11–16%, respectively, compared with those in CON).
Soil enzyme activity was analyzed to determine whether Miscanthus biochar affected the chemical and biological properties of the upland soil (Figure 1). Among the application rate of biochar, the activity of dehydrogenase (ug TPF/g soil/24 h) was found to be significantly higher in BC10 (48.6 ± 9.8) than CON (28.5 ± 3.7).

3.2. Effect of Miscanthus Biochar on the Diversity and Community of Soil Bacteria

Illumina-based 16S rRNA gene metagenomic profiling was performed to determine the effect of Miscanthus biochar amendment on root-associated bacterial community composition in upland soil. In total, 270,426 valid reads were obtained from the nine soil samples (three soils treated with different biochar amendment rates in triplicate).
The relative abundance of bacteria at the phylum level for each treatment is shown in Figure 2a. Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, Firmicutes, and Chloroflexi were the most dominant phyla, accounting for >80% of the bacterial sequences. In particular, the abundance of Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, and Chloroflexi increased by 7–14%, 14–20%, and 32–34%, respectively, with biochar amendment compared with that in the control soil, but the difference was not significant, except for Chloroflexi. In contrast, the abundance of Firmicutes decreased by 50–54% in the biochar-amended soil compared with that in the control. Principal coordinate analysis based on the Jensen–Shannon divergence distance revealed that the biochar-amended soils clearly separated the bacterial community structure from that of the control soil on the first axis (Figure 2b). Bacterial richness indices, including ACE, Chao 1, and Jackknife, increased slightly with biochar amendment, although the increase was not significant. In addition, the Shannon index, which refers to bacterial diversity, significantly increased in biochar-amended soils (Table 4).

3.3. Root Development of Soybean following the Amendment of Miscanthus Biochar

As shown in Figure 3, amendment with Miscanthus biochar affected soybean root development, including root dry weight and number of nodules at the R3 stage. The root dry weight in BC10 increased by 23% compared with that in CON, and there was no significant difference between BC3 and CON. In addition, the nodule numbers in CON, BC3, and BC10 were 189.4, 169.9, and 252, respectively, and that in BC10 increased by 27% compared with that in CON.

3.4. Growth Characteristics and Yield of Soybean by Amendment of Miscanthus Biochar

To determine whether changes in soil properties and root development after biochar amendment affected soybean growth and yield, shoot growth and yield components were investigated for each amendment level of Miscanthus biochar. Among the growth characteristics of soybean, stem diameter significantly increased by 11% in BC10 compared with that in CON, but there were no significant differences in other characteristics (Table 5). However, there were significant differences in the yield components. In particular, the number of pods and seeds per plant increased significantly, and the weight of these also increased. As a result, the yield was 275.8 kg in BC10, which was 45% higher than the 189.7 kg yield in CON (Table 6).

4. Discussion

4.1. Characteristics of Miscanthus Biochar

The low H/C ratio of the Miscanthus biochar can be attributed to the cleavage and cracking of weak hydrogen bonds during the conversion process [33]. In addition, oxygen is removed through dehydration and decarboxylation reactions during pyrolysis, resulting in a low O/C ratio [34,35]. Because of these characteristics, Miscanthus biochar is a stable material that can be stored for a long time in the soil [15,36]. This enables effective carbon sequestration and contributes to sustainable agriculture.

4.2. Comparison of Soil Properties Depending on Biochar Amendment

Similar to that of previous reports [37,38,39], our findings showed that Miscanthus biochar could improve nutrient content, such as OM, available phosphate, and exchangeable cations, in upland soil. The effects of biochar on soil are explained by its porous structure, large specific surface area, and existence of both polar and nonpolar sites [40]. These properties assist biochar in maintaining organic molecules and nutrients through adsorption, leaching reduction, and microbial immobilization [41,42,43]. In addition, the high surface charge density of the biochar retains cations for ion exchange [44,45]. Thus, the structural features formed by the pyrolysis of Miscanthus biomass may have contributed to the improvement in soil nutrients through the above possible mechanisms.
Soil enzymatic activity is a biological indicator of soil health. Nutrient cycling in the soil involves biochemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes; hence, enzyme activity is critical in soil management [46]. Dehydrogenase is an enzyme present in all viable microbial cells and is involved in the redox process of respiration [47]. In this study, dehydrogenase activity in biochar-amended soil increased 1.7 times compared with that in the control (Figure 1), which is consistent with the results of previous studies [48,49,50]. According to Fontaine et al. [51], the soil OM affects the energy supply required for the growth and development of soil microbes. Moreover, several researchers have reported a positive correlation between soil OM and dehydrogenase activity [52,53]. Therefore, the increased content of OM in the soil amended with Miscanthus biochar may have supplied more carbon substrates to enhance microbial biomass and enzyme activity.

4.3. Response of Soil Microbial Community Structure and Diversity to Biochar Amendment

Soil microorganisms play a vital role in soil ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling, decomposition, and secretion of plant growth promoters [54]. Recent studies revealed that biochar alters the structure of the microbial community and promotes its diversity [55,56,57]. The cause of changes in soil microbial abundance and diversity after biochar amendment can be explained as follows: (1) biochar alters the chemical properties of soil, such as acidity and cation exchange capacity, creating a more favorable environment for specific microbes [58], (2) biochar might influence plant growth, which would indirectly affect rhizosphere microorganisms [59], (3) the pores in biochar may serve as a suitable habitat for microbes [60], and (4) the mineral and labile carbon content in biochar can be used as a food resource required for microbial growth [61]. In this study, a relatively greater abundance of Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi was found in biochar-amended soils than in those without biochar. These two microbial phyla are known to play important roles in the carbon cycle because of their ability to degrade polysaccharides and plant-derived complexes found in exudates secreted into the rhizosphere [62,63]. Wu et al. [28] reported that biochar increased the amount of exudate from soybean roots 19.8 times compared with that in the control soil. Thus, amendment with Miscanthus biochar increased the exudates of soybean roots and subsequently recruited related microbial phyla. In addition, this study found that the abundance of Firmicutes in biochar-amended soil significantly decreased relative to that in CON, similar to the findings of previous reports [64,65]. Firmicutes utilize the available C fraction of biochar and decrease in abundance when it is consumed [66]. Therefore, the C fraction available to Firmicutes was consumed within a relatively short time after amendment with Miscanthus biochar and may have existed in a low proportion in the soil at the soybean R3 stage.

4.4. Effects of Miscanthus Biochar on Root Development and Soybean Yield

The biomass of soybean roots increased in BC10; this was probably because the development of taproots and lateral roots was enhanced compared with that in CON and BC3. Several studies have shown that biochar increases root biomass either by improving soil density and porosity or by providing nutrients for root growth [27,28]. Interestingly, the number of root nodules also increased in the BC10 treatment, which resulted from changes in soil properties and root biomass after biochar amendment. In addition, the nodulation of soybean roots is initiated by the release of host-derived polyphenolic compounds, such as flavonoids [67]. Chemical signaling between roots and nodules can be enhanced because biochar effectively adsorbs polyphenolic compounds and eventually increases the nodulation of soybean plants [68].
The increase in soybean yield in BC10 compared to CON may have been caused by the healthier soil and enhanced root development after biochar amendment, as described above. Some reports have explained that the increase in crop yield due to biochar amendment can be attributed to changes in the soil environment [28,69,70]. Similarly, the soybean yield was positively correlated with each soil characteristic after amendment with Miscanthus biochar (Figure 4a). Taken together, Miscanthus biochar promoted soil (nutrient cycling and microbial community)–plant (root development, shoot growth, and yield) interactions in upland soil (Figure 4b). However, the application of 3 tons/ha Miscanthus biochar did not enhance crop growth in the short term because of an insufficient amount of biochar. To predict the short-term effects on crop growth, more than 3 tons/ha of Miscanthus biochar is required. Therefore, it is necessary to observe the long-term correlation between the changes in soil properties and crop growth after biochar amendment.

5. Conclusions

Our study demonstrates that amendment with Miscanthus biochar improves soil fertility and soybean yield. Amendment with biochar at more than 3 tons/ha increased soil nutrients, including organic matter and available phosphate, and showed a microbial community structure separate from that of the CON. Furthermore, the abundance of the bacterial phyla involved in the degradation of plant-derived compounds increased. As the rhizosphere soil became healthy after biochar amendment, soybean root development and nodulation were enhanced. This had a positive effect on soybean seed yield, which increased only in BC10 and not in BC3. These results indicate that the interaction between the soil and crops is actively caused by Miscanthus biochar. This study will contribute to exploring various uses of Miscanthus biomass and will be beneficial for the application of biochar in sustainable agriculture; however, further research should be conducted to investigate its long-term effects.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.-H.A.; methodology, D.-H.A.; formal analysis, investigation and resources, D.-H.A., D.-C.C., K.-S.K. and J.-E.L.; data curation, D.-H.A.; writing—original draft preparation, D.-H.A.; writing—review and editing, D.-H.A., D.-C.C., K.-S.K., J.-E.L., Y.-L.C., J.-H.J., J.-B.C. and S.-Y.K.; funding acquisition, D.-H.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was supported by the Basic Research Program (Project No. PJ016094022023), funded by the National Institute of Crop Science, Rural Development Administration of the Republic of Korea. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Changes in soil enzyme activity under different amendment levels of Miscanthus biochar. Dehydrogenase activity was measured using the triphenyl tetrazolium chloride method. Enzyme activity was determined through the concentration of produced ρ-nitrophenol. Each value represents the means ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
Figure 1. Changes in soil enzyme activity under different amendment levels of Miscanthus biochar. Dehydrogenase activity was measured using the triphenyl tetrazolium chloride method. Enzyme activity was determined through the concentration of produced ρ-nitrophenol. Each value represents the means ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
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Figure 2. Changes in bacterial community composition at phylum level according to the amendment of Miscanthus biochar. (a) Relative abundances were expressed only for phyla with >1% proportion. (b) Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) plotted for all replicates in each treatment based on Jensen–Shannon distance. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
Figure 2. Changes in bacterial community composition at phylum level according to the amendment of Miscanthus biochar. (a) Relative abundances were expressed only for phyla with >1% proportion. (b) Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) plotted for all replicates in each treatment based on Jensen–Shannon distance. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
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Figure 3. Root growth of soybean plants at R3 stage under different amendment levels of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil. (a) Images indicate roots obtained from soybean plants grown in upland soil with different biochar application rates. Bars = 5 cm. Root dry weight (b) and nodule number (c) represent the means of seven individual plants per treatment. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
Figure 3. Root growth of soybean plants at R3 stage under different amendment levels of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil. (a) Images indicate roots obtained from soybean plants grown in upland soil with different biochar application rates. Bars = 5 cm. Root dry weight (b) and nodule number (c) represent the means of seven individual plants per treatment. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
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Figure 4. Correlation heatmap matrix and scheme of the effect of Miscanthus biochar on upland soil environment improvement and soybean growth. (a) Each value on the matrix represents Pearson’s correlation coefficient. If there is no significance, it is marked with a blank (p < 0.05). RDW, root dry weight; NOD, number of nodules; OM, organic matter; Avail. P, available phosphate; Ex. Ca, K, and Mg, exchangeable cation Ca, K, and Mg, respectively; DHA, dehydrogenase activity; ACE, richness index; Shannon, diversity index. (b) Suggested mechanism for soil environment improvement and soybean growth enhancement through biochar amendment. Each red arrow indicates the direction of influence, and the white arrows in the text represent the increase or decrease in each part.
Figure 4. Correlation heatmap matrix and scheme of the effect of Miscanthus biochar on upland soil environment improvement and soybean growth. (a) Each value on the matrix represents Pearson’s correlation coefficient. If there is no significance, it is marked with a blank (p < 0.05). RDW, root dry weight; NOD, number of nodules; OM, organic matter; Avail. P, available phosphate; Ex. Ca, K, and Mg, exchangeable cation Ca, K, and Mg, respectively; DHA, dehydrogenase activity; ACE, richness index; Shannon, diversity index. (b) Suggested mechanism for soil environment improvement and soybean growth enhancement through biochar amendment. Each red arrow indicates the direction of influence, and the white arrows in the text represent the increase or decrease in each part.
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Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of soil in the experimental field before application of Miscanthus biochar.
Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of soil in the experimental field before application of Miscanthus biochar.
Soil TexturepHECOMAvail. P2O5Ex. CaEx. KEx. Mg
(1:5)(dS/m)(g/kg)(mg/kg)(cmolc/kg)
Sandy loam7.7 ± 0.11.1 ± 0.113.3 ± 1.0298.3 ± 33.97.6 ± 0.21.7 ± 0.02.5 ± 0.1
Each value represents the means ± standard deviation of three replicates. EC: electric conductivity, OM: organic matter, Ex.: exchangeable cations.
Table 2. Chemical characteristics of the Miscanthus biochar used in this study.
Table 2. Chemical characteristics of the Miscanthus biochar used in this study.
pHECCNOHAtomic Ratio
(1:20)(dS/m)wt (%)O/CH/C
9.8 ± 0.07.5 ± 0.161.9 ± 0.20.5 ± 0.06.7 ± 0.41.8 ± 0.40.080.35
Each value represents the means ± standard deviation of three replicates. EC: electric conductivity; C, N, O, and H, elemental composition of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen.
Table 3. Changes in chemical characteristics of soil as influenced by different amounts of Miscanthus biochar.
Table 3. Changes in chemical characteristics of soil as influenced by different amounts of Miscanthus biochar.
OMAvail. P2O5Ex. CaEx. KEx. Mg
(g/kg)(mg/kg)(cmolc/kg)
CON15.9 ± 0.8 c346.3 ± 48.7 c7.1 ± 0.0 c1.6 ± 0.1 c1.4 ± 0.1 b
BC318.7 ± 0.8 b567.7 ± 1.2 b8.2 ± 0.1 b2.5 ± 0.1 a1.6 ± 0.0 a
BC1025.7 ± 0.6 a690.5 ± 6.2 a9.4 ± 0.2 a2.3 ± 0.0 b1.7 ± 0.0 a
Each value represents the means ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. OM: organic matter, Ex.: exchangeable cations.
Table 4. Comparison of bacterial diversity index derived from 16S rRNA genes under amendment of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil.
Table 4. Comparison of bacterial diversity index derived from 16S rRNA genes under amendment of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil.
Richness IndexDiversity Index
ACEChao 1JackknifeOTUsNPShannonShannon
CON4362.9 ± 795.2 n.s.4101.2 ± 766.4 n.s.4502.0 ± 881.0 n.s.3485.0 ± 800.6 n.s.6.8 ± 0.3 b6.6 ± 0.3 b
BC34426.7 ± 374.84166.9 ± 369.94601.1 ± 457.53649.0 ± 525.77.2 ± 0.1 a7.0 ± 0.1 a
BC104697.4 ± 447.64437.3 ± 461.34914.3 ± 529.03961.0 ± 570.47.2 ± 0.1 a7.1 ± 0.1 a
Each value represents the means ± standard deviation of three replicates. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. n.s.: not significant. OTUs: operational taxonomic units; CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar at 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
Table 5. Growth characteristics of soybean cultivated under different amendment levels of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil.
Table 5. Growth characteristics of soybean cultivated under different amendment levels of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil.
Plant HeightStem DiameterNo. of NodsNo. of BranchesNo. of Seeds per Pod
(cm)(mm)
CON35.0 ± 1.9 a9.2 ± 1.1 b12.5 ± 0.7 n.s.5.1 ± 1.0 n.s.1.6 ± 0.1 n.s.
BC331.9 ± 2.8 b9.4 ± 1.3 b12.4 ± 0.85.3 ± 1.01.5 ± 0.2
BC1034.3 ± 2.6 a10.2 ± 1.1 a12.5 ± 1.15.7 ± 0.81.6 ± 0.0
Each value represents the means ± standard deviation. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. n.s., not significant. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar at 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
Table 6. Yield component of soybean cultivated under different application rate of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil.
Table 6. Yield component of soybean cultivated under different application rate of Miscanthus biochar in upland soil.
Shoot WeightNo. of Pods per PlantWeight of Pods per PlantNo. of Seeds per PlantWeight of Seeds per PlantYield
(g)(g)(g)(kg/10a)
CON7.0 ± 1.7 b53.9 ± 20.1 b34.1 ± 12.6 b84.4 ± 40.2 b19.9 ± 9.0 b189.744.1 b
BC36.8 ± 1.4 b52.2 ± 17.1 b30.8 ± 9.7 b82.9 ± 31.3 b18.8 ± 6.6 b179.4 ± 14.5 b
BC109.1 ± 2.3 a71.2 ± 14.5 a44.7 ± 11.0 a119.7 ± 23.0 a29.0 ± 7.1 a275.8 ± 17.2 a
Each value represents the means ± standard deviation. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences at p < 0.05 using Duncan’s test. CON: untreated control soil; BC3 and BC10: Miscanthus biochar at 3 and 10 tons/ha, respectively.
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An, D.-H.; Chang, D.-C.; Kim, K.-S.; Lee, J.-E.; Cha, Y.-L.; Jeong, J.-H.; Choi, J.-B.; Kim, S.-Y. Miscanthus-Derived Biochar Enhanced Soil Fertility and Soybean Growth in Upland Soil. Agriculture 2023, 13, 1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091738

AMA Style

An D-H, Chang D-C, Kim K-S, Lee J-E, Cha Y-L, Jeong J-H, Choi J-B, Kim S-Y. Miscanthus-Derived Biochar Enhanced Soil Fertility and Soybean Growth in Upland Soil. Agriculture. 2023; 13(9):1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091738

Chicago/Turabian Style

An, Da-Hee, Dong-Chil Chang, Kwang-Soo Kim, Ji-Eun Lee, Young-Lok Cha, Jae-Hee Jeong, Ji-Bong Choi, and Soo-Yeon Kim. 2023. "Miscanthus-Derived Biochar Enhanced Soil Fertility and Soybean Growth in Upland Soil" Agriculture 13, no. 9: 1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091738

APA Style

An, D. -H., Chang, D. -C., Kim, K. -S., Lee, J. -E., Cha, Y. -L., Jeong, J. -H., Choi, J. -B., & Kim, S. -Y. (2023). Miscanthus-Derived Biochar Enhanced Soil Fertility and Soybean Growth in Upland Soil. Agriculture, 13(9), 1738. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13091738

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