Association of Lameness Prevalence and Severity in Early-Lactation Cows with Milk Traits, Metabolic Profile, and Dry Period

Abstract

This study investigated the prevalence and severity of lameness in dairy cow herds, focusing on its relationship with milk traits, metabolic profile, and dry period management. Lameness was evaluated in 4221 multiparous Holstein dairy cows during early lactation (up to 60 days postpartum) using a 1-to-5 scale. The average lameness score was 1.67, with a prevalence of 10.66% (scores 3 to 5) and 4.55% classified as severe (scores 4 to 5). Severe lameness was associated with energy-corrected milk losses of −11.00 kg/day (p < 0.001) and a decrease in milk lactose concentration by −0.16 percentage points (p < 0.001), alongside a rise in somatic cell scores by +0.11. The incidence of cows with a milk fat-to-protein ratio below 1.2 increased by 21.7 percentage points, while those with a ratio above 1.4 rose by 19.1 percentage points as lameness worsened. Additionally, non-esterified fatty acid concentrations increased by 1.46 times as lameness severity intensified (p < 0.001). Cows without lameness had blood cortisol levels 1.86 times lower than affected cows, with cortisol tripling in those with the highest scores. A dry period of 30 to 60 days was correlated with more healthy cows, whereas periods over 90 days resulted in 1.586 times higher odds of lameness (p < 0.05). This research underscores the need for improved management strategies to enhance dairy cow welfare and productivity.

1. Introduction

Lameness continues to be a prevalent challenge in the dairy industry, affecting between 20% and 55% of cows housed indoors in North America [1,2]. This condition not only negatively impacts animal welfare but also leads to significant economic losses, including reduced milk production [3] and increased rates of involuntary culling [4,5].

A comprehensive review by Thomsen et al. [6], analyzing global data over 30 years (1989–2020), found an average lameness prevalence of 22.8%, with severe cases (rated 4–5 on a 1–5 scale) averaging 7.0%. The reviewed studies demonstrated considerable variation between countries. The authors’ analysis indicated that lameness prevalence in European countries ranges from 5.1% to 43%, with the most effective control outcomes achieved in Sweden. In contrast, laminitis remains a significant health issue for cows in Central and Eastern European countries. To date, no large-scale studies have been conducted in Lithuania to assess the prevalence of laminitis in cows. This variation in lameness prevalence emphasizes its complex, multifactorial nature, influenced by differing conditions across farms and regions. Despite ongoing management efforts, lameness prevalence remains high, underscoring the need for further in-depth, multifaceted research into its causes and risk factors. Additionally, the high prevalence of lameness indicates a lack of understanding regarding the economic losses and consequences associated with this condition, particularly in relation to milk production indicators and metabolic diseases.

Studies have established a link between lameness and metabolic health, particularly with non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs). Elevated NEFA levels, often indicating negative energy balance (NEB), have been strongly associated with foot problems such as laminitis. Oikonomou et al. [7] identified a direct relationship between increased NEFA concentrations and the onset of lameness, especially laminitis. Similarly, Bicalho et al. [8] found that cows with higher NEFA levels shortly after calving were more susceptible to foot issues, including sole ulcers. Huxley [9] also highlighted that cows with lower body condition scores (BCS) and elevated NEFA levels experienced higher lameness rates in the early postpartum period. Additionally, Esposito et al. [10] noted that inflammation triggered by high NEFA levels contributes to lameness by exacerbating systemic stress.

Lameness is a significant welfare issue in dairy cows due to the pain caused by hoof lesions, a concern recognized by both farmers and veterinarians [11,12]. Stojkov et al. [13] investigated the physiological stress responses in lame cows, highlighting elevated cortisol levels as a biomarker for pain. Effective management of lameness requires timely detection and regular monitoring. To facilitate this, the International Committee for Animal Recording (ICAR) recommends frequent locomotion assessments, ideally on a weekly or biweekly basis, to enable early intervention [14].

Lameness in dairy cows is influenced by various factors, including genetics, farm management practices, and environmental conditions [15,16]. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are crucial for mitigating the severity of lameness and enhancing recovery outcomes [17]. A study by Rashad et al. [18] across four Egyptian farms reported lameness rates ranging from 0% to 19%, identifying a positive correlation between lameness and mastitis. This finding suggests that lameness may be indicative of the overall health of cows and its potential association with other diseases. Pérez et al. [19] highlighted that milk somatic cell count (SCC) and lactose levels are well-established indicators of cow mastitis, particularly in subclinical cases. Elevated SCC, primarily composed of leukocytes (white blood cells), typically rises in response to udder infections, indicating poor milk quality and the onset of mastitis. Conversely, milk lactose concentrations tend to decrease when cows develop mastitis, reflecting compromised udder health and metabolic functions.

The economic impact of lameness in dairy cows extends beyond production losses, with additional financial burdens stemming from the need to discard milk following antibiotic treatments for infections related to the condition [5]. Browne et al. [20] highlight the necessity of improving farm infrastructure and offering better educational resources to help farmers adopt more effective lameness management practices, which could significantly reduce its incidence. Preventive strategies during critical phases of a cow’s lifecycle, particularly the dry period, play a crucial role in controlling lameness. Early detection and intervention during the initial stages of lactation can positively influence milk production and overall herd health by lowering the risk of mastitis [21]. The dry period, usually lasting 30 to 60 days, is vital for cows’ metabolic health. Poor management during this phase can lead to a negative energy balance, increasing the likelihood of lameness in the subsequent lactation. Research by Daros et al. [22] underscores the importance of this period for lameness prevention, although hoof trimming before dry-off may not always be effective, particularly for cows with underlying metabolic issues. Additionally, shorter dry periods have been associated with heightened metabolic stress, further exacerbating lameness risks [21,23]. Conversely, proper dry period management supports recovery and prepares cows for the next lactation cycle, reducing the risk of lameness and other health concerns.

This study aims to investigate the prevalence and severity of lameness in dairy cows and assess its relationship with milk performance, metabolic profiles, and dry period management. The main hypothesis is that lameness during early lactation is closely related to the duration of the dry period, as well as key metabolic and milk production factors. Addressing the issue will require effective management of these interconnected factors.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Design, Animals, and Recording of Data

The study was conducted on a commercial dairy farm in Lithuania (coordinates 54°85′18.8″ N, 23°16′99.6″ E), situated in Northeastern Europe within the temperate continental climate zone. All procedures complied with the Law on Animal Welfare and Protection of the Republic of Lithuania, under study approval number PK016965. The investigation period spanned from January 2021 to January 2024.

All healthy multiparous Holstein dairy cows (in their 2nd to 4th lactations) with an average milk yield of approximately 9000 kg in the previous lactation were selected for the study. Exclusion criteria included cows with calving difficulties—specifically, a calving ease score above 3 (indicating dystocia), calves that died within 24 h, twin births, a gestation period shorter than 260 days, or a body condition score below 3. This resulted in a final dataset of 4221 cows.

All cows were managed year-round in an indoor, zero-grazing housing system. They were maintained in a controlled environment with regulated temperature, ventilation, and bedding to ensure consistent living conditions. Milking was performed using Lely Astronaut^® A3 milking robots (Maassluis, The Netherlands) equipped with a free-traffic system.

From the start of the dry period until 60 days postpartum, all cows were fed a total mixed ration (TMR) formulated to meet the energy and nutrient needs of Holstein cows weighing between 550 and 650 kg. The TMR included precise daily amounts per cow: rapeseed (1.2 kg), grass silage (8 kg), maize silage (1.2 kg), wheat straw (7.5 kg), water (4.3 kg), and a mineral–vitamin mix (0.25 kg).

The data sample was categorized according to the duration of the cows’ dry periods, reflecting the proportions in each category: (1) dry periods shorter than 30 days, (2) dry periods between 30 and 60 days, (3) dry periods between 60 and 90 days, and (4) dry periods longer than 90 days (

Table 1. Frequency of cows by dry period.

Dry Period (Days)	Cows	%
<30	549	13.0
30–60	1697	40.2
60–90	1439	34.1
>90	536	12.7

).

Milk production was measured from 7 to 60 days postpartum using the GEA digital milking system reader (GEA Group, Düsseldorf, Germany). To measure lactose, fat, and protein in milk, mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy was employed. This widely accepted technique involves passing infrared light through milk samples, where specific wavelengths are absorbed by lactose, fat, and protein molecules. The absorbance at these wavelengths is subsequently analyzed to quantify each component in grams per liter (g/L). MIR spectroscopy is accurate, efficient, and non-destructive, making it ideal for routine milk composition analysis in dairy research.

Lameness was evaluated using a 1 to 5 scale, as described by Thomsen et al. [24]. Score 1 (Normal gait): The cow walks normally, showing no signs of lameness. The gait is steady, with even strides and no apparent discomfort or favoring of any limbs. Score 2 (Uneven gait): The cow’s walk is almost normal but with slight irregularities. The gait may appear uneven, and the cow might take shorter strides than usual, but no clear signs of lameness are visible. This score indicates subtle issues that may not significantly impair mobility but suggest the cow is not entirely sound. Score 3 (Mild lameness): The cow exhibits an abnormal gait, characterized by noticeably shortened strides on one or more legs. Although the cow can still walk, the signs of lameness are apparent, and discomfort is evident in her movement. This score represents mild but discernible lameness. Score 4 (Moderate lameness): Lameness is obvious, with the cow showing significant difficulty in walking on one or more legs. The gait is clearly impaired, and the cow may avoid placing weight on the affected leg(s), displaying pronounced discomfort. Mobility is reduced. Score 5 (Severe lameness): The cow is severely lame, with marked difficulty moving. The cow will likely refuse to place weight on the affected leg(s) and may only move with extreme effort. This score indicates severe pain and significant impairment to normal function.

Cows were categorized as having no lameness if they scored 1 or 2, while lameness was defined by scores of 3 to 5. The severity of lameness was further classified, with mild lameness corresponding to a score of 3, and severe lameness corresponding to scores of 4 or 5.

Blood tests were conducted on the day of laminitis diagnosis, which refers to the specific date when laminitis was first identified and confirmed in each cow based on observable clinical signs and a standardized lameness scoring system, as outlined in the study protocol [24]. The sample comprised 40 cows from each severity group based on lameness scores, totaling 200 cows. Blood sampling was performed at 10:00 a.m., prior to the afternoon feeding. A 10 mL blood sample was collected from the coccygeal vein into sterile, evacuated red-top tubes (BD Vacutainer, Great Britain). The samples were promptly transported to the Laboratory of Clinical Tests at the Large Animal Clinic of the Veterinary Academy of the Lithuanian University of Health Sciences for analysis. Serum analysis was conducted using the Hitachi 705 analyzer (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) and DiaSys reagents (Diagnostic Systems GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany) to measure key biochemical parameters, including non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs, mmol/L) and cortisol (nmol/L) concentrations.

2.2. Statistical Analysis of Data

Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS software (IBM Corp. Released 2017. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, NY, USA: IBM Corp.).

To account for the fat and protein composition of the milk, the total milk yield was adjusted to energy-corrected milk (ECM) using the following equation [25]:

ECM = 0.327 × milk yield (kg) + 12.95 × fat (kg) + 7.65 × protein (kg)

The normality of continuous data was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, while Levene’s test was applied to evaluate the consistency of variances in milk traits across groups categorized by lameness status. Results are reported as mean (M) ± standard error of the mean (SEM).

To ensure a normal distribution, the number of somatic cells in milk (SCC) was transformed into somatic cell score (SCS) using the formula SCS = log₂ (SCC/100) + 3 [26].

The cow sample was divided into three categories based on its average milk fat-to-protein ratio (F/P): (1) F/P < 1.2, (2) 1.2 ≤ F/P ≤ 1.4, and (3) F/P > 1.4. A ratio of less than 1.2 served as an indicator of subclinical acidosis [27], while a ratio greater than 1.4 suggested a risk of subclinical ketosis [28].

The chi-square test for homogeneity was used to compare proportions across different groups, investigating whether lameness severity varies by metabolic status or dry period categories.

The linear regression method was employed to analyze the relationship between milk traits and lameness severity scores. To assess the sustainability of the regression equation, the coefficient of determination (R²)—which represents the proportion of variance in the dependent variable explained by the independent variables in the model—was utilized.

The multivariable binary logistic regression method was employed to evaluate the risk of lameness in cows (a binary outcome: laminitis detected or not detected), considering factors such as the duration of the dry period (categorized into three groups: <30 days, 30–90 days, and >90 days, with the reference group being cows with a dry period of 30 to 90 days). NEFA (M = 0.31 mEq/L) and cortisol levels (M = 0.82 mml/L), as well as energy-corrected milk (M = 37.72 kg), milk lactose (M = 4.59%), and somatic cell score (M = 1.78) were classified into two categories based on the mean value for all cows: those at or above the average value and those below the average value.

Milk somatic cell count, milk lactose, and the fat-to-protein ratio did not show a significant effect (based on the Wald test) and were excluded from the final multivariable binary logistic regression model.

A p-value of less than 0.05 (p < 0.05) was considered statistically significant for all analyses.

3. Results

The analysis revealed that the average lameness score for all cows was 1.67. The prevalence of lameness, defined as scores ranging from 3 to 5, was 10.66%, while severe lameness, characterized by scores of 4 to 5, accounted for 4.55% of the cases. Cows completely unaffected by lameness, evaluated with a score of 1, comprised 49.23% of the total herd (Figure 1).

The productivity of healthy cows (n = 3771) was 7.93 kg of energy-corrected milk per day higher (p < 0.001) than that of cows diagnosed with laminitis (n = 450). The greatest milk yield losses (−11.00 kg, p < 0.001), compared to healthy cows assessed with a score 1 for laminitis, were observed in animals with a severe lameness score (

Table 2. Milk traits of cows by lameness status.

Lameness Score	Cows	Energy-Corrected Milk (kg)		SCS		Milk Lactose %
1	2078	39.280 a	±0.365	1.789 a	±0.011	4.64 a	±0.012
2	1693	37.684 b	±0.360	1.801 a	±0.012	4.64 a	±0.006
3	258	34.572 c	±0.205	1.843 b	±0.017	4.61 b	±0.007
4	151	32.212 d	±0.223	1.865 c	±0.021	4.58 c	±0.010
5	41	28.280 e	±0.305	1.898 d	±0.023	4.48 d	±0.009

SCS—milk somatic cell score [26]. Group means marked with different letters (^{a, b, c, d, e}) differ significantly (p < 0.05).

and Figure 2). Similarly, the decrease in milk lactose was the most pronounced (−0.16 percentage points, p < 0.001), and the increase in milk somatic cell score was the highest (+0.11 SCS, p < 0.001).

Compared to cows evaluated as having no signs of lameness (score 1), the number of cows with a milk fat-to-protein ratio less than 1.2 increased as the severity of the laminitis score increased (by 21.7 percentage points compared to cows with a score of 5). Similarly, the number of cows with a milk fat-to-protein ratio greater than 1.4 increased (by 19.1 percentage points). Conversely, the number of cows with a normal milk fat-to-protein ratio decreased (by 40.8 percentage points). The analysis results are summarized in Figure 3.

As the lameness severity score in cows increased from 1 to 5, the NEFA concentration increased by 1.46 times (p < 0.001), according to the linear regression equation presented in Figure 3.

The average blood cortisol concentration (Figure 4) in cows with no lameness was 1.86 times lower than in cows showing symptoms of the disease (p < 0.001). An increase in the severity of lameness symptoms tripled the cortisol level in the blood of cows in the score 5 group compared to score 1 cows (p < 0.001).

The highest number of non-lame cows was found in the group with a dry period lasting from 30 to 60 days, while the lowest was in cows with the longest dry period of more than 90 days (p < 0.001). The group with the shortest dry period did not significantly differ from the groups with a dry period lasting from 30 to 90 days in terms of the number of healthy cows, but it was 1.40 times higher than the group with a dry period longer than 90 days (p < 0.001) (Figure 5A).

Although the longest dry period was associated with a significantly higher number of laminitis cases in the early stage of the subsequent lactation (Figure 5A), when evaluating data of lame cows based on the severity of laminitis, the highest number of severe cases was found in the group of cows with the shortest dry period—between 2.8 and 6.4 percentage points higher than in other groups (Figure 5B).

As the lameness score, which describes its severity, increased (

Table 3. Analysis of risk factors for lameness in cows.

Explanatory Variables	OR	95% CI		p
		Min	Max
Cortisol	2.211	1.684	2.723	<0.001
NEFAs	1.985	1.622	2.548	<0.001
Dry period:
—short (<30 days)	1.108	0.984	1.4211	n.s.
—long (>90 days)	1.586	1.291	1.799	<0.05
Energy-corrected milk	0.778	0.568	0.901	<0.05

OR—odds ratio; 95% CI—95% confidence interval for odds ratio. p—p-value (considered statistically significant with p < 0.05; n.s.—not significant with p ≥ 0.05).

), cow productivity decreased according to the regression equation (y = 8.8839x, R² = 0.724, p < 0.001), the milk lactose concentration decreased (y = −0.038x + 4.704, R² = 0.8205, p < 0.001), and the milk somatic cell score (SCS) increased (y = 0.0282x + 1.7546, R² = 0.9797, p < 0.001), with a high coefficient of determination (R²), proving a linear relationship between the studied indicators.

Increased cortisol concentration in the blood of cows was associated with a 2.211-fold increase (95% CI = 1.1684–2.723, p < 0.001) in the odds of lameness (Table 3). Cows with higher NEFA levels had 1.985 times higher odds of lameness compared to those with lower NEFA concentrations (95% CI = 1.622–2.548, p < 0.001). Additionally, cows with a long dry period (>90 days) had significantly 1.586 higher odds of lameness (95% CI = 1.291–1.799, p < 0.05), while cows with a short dry period (<30 days) exhibited a slight tendency towards an increased incidence of laminitis compared to cows with a dry period of 30 to 90 days. Lameness was associated with a decrease in cow productivity. In this study, cows with higher productivity exhibited a 0.778-fold decrease in the odds of lameness (95% CI = 0.568–0.901, p < 0.05).

4. Discussion

Lameness is a significant issue in dairy farming, impacting both production efficiency and animal welfare [24]. Thomsen [29] concluded that locomotor disorders were the leading cause of on-farm euthanasia in Danish dairy cows, representing about 40% of all euthanized cows.

In comparing the lameness prevalence rates observed in our study with those reported by other authors, some notable differences emerge. Thomsen et al. [6] reported a mean lameness prevalence of 22.8% across global dairy herds, which is substantially higher than the 10.66% observed in our study. The prevalence of severe lameness (also defined by scores of 4 to 5) in their data was 7.0%, again higher than the 4.55% recorded in our findings. These discrepancies could be due to variations in farm management practices, environmental conditions, or even differences in herd genetics.

In our study, the impact of lameness on milk productivity is clearly evident. Healthy cows produced 7.93 kg more milk per day than cows diagnosed with laminitis (p < 0.001), while cows with severe lameness experienced the most significant drop in milk yield, losing 11.00 kg compared to healthy animals. These findings align with previous research that highlights the detrimental effect of lameness on milk production. For example, Archer et al. [3] and Garvey [21] found that lameness could significantly reduce milk yield, which is consistent with our observation of decreased productivity in lame cows. The sharp decline in milk output among cows with severe lameness is also supported by studies [6,9,10] that associate higher lameness scores with more pronounced production losses due to the discomfort and reduced mobility that affect feeding and energy balance. Additionally, our results indicate a marked decrease in milk lactose and a significant increase in somatic cell count in cows with severe lameness. This is in line with the findings of Esposito et al. [30], who noted that metabolic stress and inflammation in lame cows often lead to poorer milk quality, reflected in reduced lactose content and elevated SCC. High SCC is often linked to mastitis, which frequently occurs alongside lameness, further exacerbating productivity losses and animal health issues.

In the early stages of lactation, dairy cows often experience heightened energy demands for milk production, which can result in a negative energy balance (NEB) [31,32]. Our results demonstrate a clear association between the severity of lameness and metabolic imbalances, as indicated by the milk fat-to-protein ratio (F/P). Specifically, the number of cows with an F/P ratio less than 1.2 (a sign of acidosis) increased by 21.7 percentage points as the laminitis score worsened, particularly in cows with a score of 5. Conversely, the proportion of cows with an F/P ratio greater than 1.4 (indicative of ketosis) rose by 19.1 percentage points as laminitis severity increased. Oetzel [33] and Enemark [34] reported similar findings, noting that metabolic disorders such as subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) and ketosis are often linked to lameness in dairy cows. They suggest that nutritional imbalances exacerbate ruminal and systemic conditions, contributing to poor hoof health. Our results, which show increased acidosis in cows with more severe laminitis, support this, indicating that lameness frequently coincides with metabolic dysfunctions like acidosis.

Bicalho et al. [35] also observed that cows suffering from metabolic diseases, particularly ketosis, are at a higher risk of developing lameness due to changes in energy balance and fat mobilization. This aligns with our findings, where the percentage of cows with signs of ketosis (F/P > 1.4) increased as laminitis severity rose. Esposito et al. [30] highlighted that metabolic stress during early lactation, especially negative energy balance, plays a crucial role in the onset of lameness and associated metabolic disorders like ketosis. Similarly, Treacher and Wilkinson [36] noted that cows with lameness often face nutritional stress, leading to both SARA and ketosis, which further exacerbate the risk of lameness. Our results confirm this link, showing that cows with more severe lameness have an elevated risk of both acidosis and ketosis, as evidenced by significant shifts in their milk fat-to-protein ratios.

This study indicates a significant relationship between lameness severity and NEFA concentration in dairy cows, with NEFA levels increasing by 1.46 times as lameness severity scores rose from 1 to 5. Oikonomou et al. [7] reported that elevated NEFA levels during early lactation were significantly associated with increased lameness. Huxley [37] further supports this notion by highlighting the prevalence of metabolic stressors, including high NEFA levels, in cows experiencing lameness. Additionally, Esposito et al. [30] emphasize that metabolic disturbances are linked to higher lameness severity.

Our findings indicate a significant correlation between lameness severity and elevated blood cortisol concentrations in dairy cows. Specifically, cortisol levels were observed to triple in cows with a lameness severity score of 5 compared to those with a score of 1. This is consistent with the work of González et al. [30], who reported that lameness in dairy cows is linked to increased stress responses, reflected in higher cortisol levels. Their study demonstrated that cows experiencing lameness had significantly elevated cortisol concentrations, highlighting the impact of pain-related physiological stress on metabolic functions. Similarly, Mason et al. [38] found a positive correlation between lameness severity and cortisol levels. Their research showed that as lameness scores increased, cortisol concentrations rose significantly, suggesting that pain and discomfort substantially affect stress responses. Furthermore, Burton et al. [39] reported that cows with severe lameness had higher cortisol levels compared to healthy cows, reinforcing the idea that lameness exacerbates stress in these animals.

The dry period is often considered a restful interval for cows, typically lasting between 6 to 8 weeks prior to calving [40]. Some researchers have proposed that shortening the dry period could improve the energy balance for cows during the early stages of lactation. For instance, a study indicated that a 4-week dry period was beneficial, leading to better energy balance from 10 weeks before calving to 12 weeks after calving, when compared to an 8-week dry period [41]. Additionally, lameness occurring at the onset of lactation has been shown to adversely affect the biochemical profile and overall productivity of dairy cows [42].

Our results indicate an association between the duration of the dry period and the incidence of lameness in dairy cows, with the highest number of healthy (non-lame) cows observed in the group with a dry period of 30 to 60 days. Conversely, the lowest number of healthy cows was recorded in those with a dry period exceeding 90 days. Notably, the group with the shortest dry period did not show a significant difference in healthy cow numbers compared to groups with dry periods of 30 to 90 days, but it did have a 1.40-fold increase in healthy cows compared to the group with a dry period longer than 90 days.

De Vries et al. [43] reported that cows with shorter dry periods (around 30 days) displayed improved health outcomes compared to those with extended dry periods, which often led to increased incidences of lameness and other metabolic issues. In contrast, O’Hara [44] noted that excessively long dry periods (over 90 days) are associated with increased risks of metabolic disorders, including lameness, which correlates with our results indicating a lower number of healthy cows in that group.

The results from the binary logistic regression model highlighted several critical associations between physiological factors and the likelihood of lameness in dairy cows, underscoring the multifactorial nature of this issue. This complexity arises from the interplay of physiological stressors, nutritional status, and management practices, all of which significantly influence health outcomes. Our studies have shown that physiological stress, as indicated by elevated cortisol and NEFA levels, is an important contributor to lameness. Additionally, the length of the dry period was associated with increased odds of lameness, suggesting that extended dry periods may exacerbate health issues.

5. Conclusions

The average lameness score of 1.67 indicates that 10.66% of the herd was affected. Severe lameness cases (4.55%) were directly linked to reduced milk yield and increased somatic cell counts. Additionally, metabolic indicators such as lactose concentration and fat-to-protein ratios deteriorated with increasing lameness severity. Elevated levels of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) and cortisol concentrations were associated with higher odds of lameness, suggesting that metabolic stressors play a crucial role in its development. A dry period of 30 to 60 days was correlated with a higher number of healthy cows, while longer dry periods were associated with an increased incidence of lameness. These findings indicate that optimal management of the dry period is essential for maintaining cow health.

Furthermore, these insights emphasize the need for comprehensive strategies and further studies that enhance our understanding of the multiple factors and mechanisms related to cow lameness, ultimately improving cow welfare and productivity. By integrating research on nutritional management, environmental conditions, and physiological stressors, we can develop targeted interventions that not only mitigate the risk of lameness but also foster a healthier and more productive dairy herd.